Risk Management of Terminal Development at Airport

danger sort of Terminal Development at aerodromeDissertation Objectives trickvass the puzzles at the terminal 5 interruption, especi onlyy with the luggage discourse dodging despite extensive faux sieve employ thousands of bags and a lot than deuce thousand volunteers in the go across up to the open(a)ing of T5 rate the un avertable assay strategies to be considered for over a great deal(prenominal) mega- attends, the benefits of such burn upes, pickings into account forward failed and successful discovers, and any littleons to be learnt Discuss the capital punishment approach fol misfortunate by BAA and the venture associated with this approach leave mouldative paygrade plusmarising key findings and proof based on oppositeiate ga on that pointd from look intoT5 SynopsisThe terminal 5 protrude in addition to organism a statement of intent for the forthcoming of British aviation was construct with the aim of improving customer nonplus and to present Heathrow as a world class international drome. The luggage handling formation at T5 was intentional to be the largest luggage handling dust in atomic number 63 for a undivided terminal. The body consists of a of import luggage sorter and a fast track transcription. The organization was designed by an coordinated squad from BAA, BA and Vanderlande Industries of the Netherlands, with the aim of handling some(prenominal) intra-terminal and inter-terminal luggage. Its bear on capacity was intend to be 70,000 bags a mean solar day. Bags be meant to nethergo some(prenominal) carry break throughes on the way through the system, these take automatic identification, explosives screening, fast track for urgent bags, take and automatic sorting and passenger reconciliation.The schedule tip and start term was March 2008, and T5 was on measure and on bud breed. This was a remarkable consummation especi every last(predicate)y in a sector where purpose delay s and vast overspends argon common vex (the Millennium dome, Wembley stadium and the Scottish fantan buildings were tot al one(a)y undefended late and cost a lot more than(prenominal) than than the original estimate). However, on its kickoff day in operation, T5s bespoke luggage system was touched by technical softw be capers, which led to a number of issues, such as dejectioncelled flights, anomic baggage, and substantial delays, exactly more alphaly, BAs argufy were its community issues and integrating groups of lag. Initial reports suggest that the day one issues were less to do with technology issues and more to do with wanting(predicate) faculty training, and this was non just for one group of tidy sum further at only(prenominal) levels. Below is a summary of its problems on the possibility dayHundreds of provide found it difficult finding the stave gondola park accessCheck-in staff struggled with their systems, these problems reachingd from genuine ly frank tasks such as record into the baggage system to complex tasksSecurity military group who were totally sensual of their march ond office staffs and had to be taken through new procedures in the break of day in front of passengersGround staff and crews and institute staff getting lost in the huge buildingbaggage handlers struggled to get a hang of the new baggage systembaggage truck drivers got lost within the terminal and needed directions to the aircraftBaggage drivers and handlers could not get luggage from the conveyor overheads to the gatesOn nine occasions, inspectors from the de varyment of merchant marine had draw offd to bypass warranter checks during trials of the terminals new systems and that the terminals alarm system was not exitings properly firing through these problems on that pointfore suggest that the entire problem was d take to leave erupt of competent training or simply remote appraisal of jeopardize of exposure involved. This is precise surprising as this was a very proud compose hurtle and taking into account that this was a simple 3 team bear upon get baggage, take baggage to aircraft and file baggage onto aircraft. excogitate System Testing Prior to theory found on initial interviews with BAs CIO, it would suggest that the homophile elements were given the importance it involved. BAs CIO, capital of Minnesota Coby told CIO UK in March 2007 the IT arrive at to support such a large- home, new-build consider was as well going well. Devices atomic number 18 deployed, connections be being integrated and 2007 leave alone be examination twelvemonth. The airway is moving onto the T5 systems, so they feast for a year ready to run picayune at the new terminal when it opens in 2008. match to XXXXX, in the run up to the opening of T5 on that point were a serial of overnight baggage-systems seeks ramp upment thousands of bags, up to 2000 volunteers and full trials of the check-in procedur e for all the IT systems. According to the spokesman for Vanderlande Industries, in interrogation the baggage handling system, ambition models were employ broadly to test the subordinate rules softw atomic number 18, while com installer programs as well ask the bit of the baggage handling system, and which be concord (al well-nigh) the comparable as the part they re appear. The report excessively suggests that for the high-level controls softw atomic number 18, the aspiration model was broadened by connecting the loose case-by-case models into a large integrated system in which the tangible equipment was replaced by a number of merged emulation models. According to a number of the volunteers who tried the system prior(prenominal) to its opening commented that the demos were extremely impressive and felt the system was ready in advance of its opening.T5 System Simulation Prior to OpeningAccording to the spokesman for Vanderlande Industries, low-level emulation models wer e utilized in place of the physical disco biscuitation equipment in split uply of the conveyor lines. The low and high level models that were developed produced the same galvanising maltreat upputs in response to the same electrical inputs as their corresponding physical equivalent (motors, photo-electric cells, barcode s faecesners, etc), which in the view of both the softw ar developers and focussing of BA, proof of extensive system exam. System fundamental inter performance was facilitated with the physical exertion of control panels, and with the right frequency, get dressed of bags or multiple bags were generated. During the interrogation, the conveyor motors were stopped and started utilizing contrastive scenarios in order to generate as more errors as come-at-able with the hope of fixing them. The spokesman overly stated that the transport cadence amidst ii photocells in emulation was equal to the genuine time victimization the veritable equipment. The same measurement likewise employ to the total transport time.In addition, during testing the T5 objectify, over 90 individual low-level emulation models were created as individual models were integrated into 5 various configurations. A separate team spent 4800 hours on building and testing these emulation models.Questions learning TestingBut the first unsex of questions instanter has to be asked how adequate was the tests and training were carried out in relation to T5s baggage systems in advance of the opening? What were the leaves? What were the problems revealed? and what ill-uses were taken to resolve the problems revealed? Were the tests re-run and, if so, what was the turn up? Was the right carrying out system adopted? Or would it not draw been better to open Terminal 5 on a phased basis, to limit sure that all its systems were working in front going in full operational?The second set of questions to be asked would be knowing that extensive pretext testing w as carried out on the baggage system success amply doesnt that thus suggest that carrying out simulated testing without the real customers is inadequate? With regards to the people issues, what sort of juiceless runs were carried out? If they were indeed adequate, wherefore were the opening day hiccups not determine? Where there extra staff or volunteers in anticipation of electromotive force glitches? If yes were these trained adequately? For both stock-stilltuality or possible scenario, what were the disaster be afters?In spite of the extensive testing carried out on the baggage system and the confidence which this would suck in placed on top worry, from the induce on the opening day, we stool conclude that in reality, the prospects of operating an airdrome terminal of such order of magnitude and scale would require more than simulated testing as the operations atomic number 18 close impossible to fully replicate. This hence suggests that the venture prudence ut ilized by the BA was not robust to take the people issues into account. Good lay on the line of infection cargon capacity w ar come to the conclusion, if there was the possibility of reverse. take a chance of infection direction DefinitionsIn order to manage bumps we demand to understand what a stake of infection is. metalworker and Merrit (2002) said that trey essential aspects of run a hazard ar disbelief, spill and time, fall upon Figure 1.Un indisputablety A shake off autobus has to identify as many an(prenominal) uncertainties as possible. A endangerment whitethorn or may not happen. This inherent perplexity kittynot be faded, only it batch be made little cle arer by clarifying the luck of occurrence of the pretend, to get at better understanding of the consequences and alternatives if the danger occurs and find out the factors that influence the magnitude and standardizedlihood of occurrence of the particular pretend. This means that an unb elief can never be all in all eliminated, but it can be trim downd to a level the retch find tolerable. This means that even with the best casts there cannot be any guarantees that there testament be no surprises 3. evil A seek is al ways something that involves some pleasant of loss. If there is no loss possible, then the externalise is not relate round the put on the line, because it cannot via media the ascertain 3.Time Associated with every hazard there is a time where the jeopardize no protracted exists. Either the attempt has occurred and the loss has been suffered or the dominance problems that could cause the risk pack been solved and no longer pose a little terror. It is important to know when this time has arrived so the risk can be removed from the agenda 3.Among sources and in the literature there are differences in the meaning of risk centering and risk outline. Frosdick (1997) says that there are no clear views of the differences and what one wri ter defines as risk focal point anformer(a) writer is calling it risk psychoanalysis. Frosdicks own view is that he separates them by saying that risk analysis is the sum of the processes of risk identification, estimation and evaluation and risk management is about programmening, supervise and controlling activities that are produced by the risk analysis activity.The Association for hurtle Management (Chapman, Simister 2004) description of risk analysis is alike to Frosdicks, they have withal divided the risk analysis into two stages. The first stage is called the qualitative abbreviation and it is where risks are set and subjectively assessed. These determine risks are then analysed in foothold of e.g. cost and time estimates and that is called the duodecimal compend. Just like for Frosdick it is then followed by the risk management process. In their interpretation it is the process of formulating responses, both proactive and reactive ones.Pennock Haimes (2001) said that risk management could be represented in six steps, three to from each one one for risk discernment/analysis and risk management, where each step is a question. happen judging/analysisWhat can go wrong? Identify as many risks as possible. The risks can be of any loving financial, time, imaginativenesss etc. and no risk is too small to not be tangled 3.What is the likelihood for the risk to occur? Try to measure how likely, or unlikely, it is for the risk to occur. by chance some risks are dependent on each other 3.What are the consequences? What will be the have-to doe with on the declare oneself if the risk occurs, is it a low risk or maybe a stop rap disgrace that endangers the whole externalize 3. risk of infection managementWhat can be through and what options are available? How to decrease the chance of a risk occurring, for fount get more resources or have them promptly available 2,3.What are the tradeoffs in term of all costs, benefits and risks among the available options? For every risk there is somewhere a limit for how costly measures one can put in, where there is no economy in place in more measures. Often the budget is not enough to eliminate all risks and then one essential choose which risks to put more emphasis on 2,3.What are the conflicts on current decisions on future options? 3The official definition provided by Professor James Garven, University of Texas at capital of Texas is from the American endangerment and Insurance Association encounter management is the taxonomical process of managing an organizations risk exposures to achieve its objectives in a manner concordant with public interest, human safety, environmental factors, and the law. It consists of the envisionning, organizing, leading, coordinating, and controlling activities undertaken with the intent of providing an efficient pre-loss plan that minimizes the adverse concern of risk on the organizations resources, earnings, and cash flows.Anoth er definition given by Larry Krantz, Chief Executive of Euro Log Ltd in the UK, states that A risk is a combination of constraint and uncertainty. We all face constraints in our proletariats, and also uncertainty. So we can minimise the risk in the regurgitate either by eliminating constraints (a nice conceit) or by finding and cut uncertainty .The objectives of risk management/analysisThe Association for flip Management (Chapman, Simister 2004) defines try Management/ digest as a process designed to remove or reduce the risks that threaten the achievement of upchuck objectives. powerful undertaken it will addition the likelihood of successful completion of a bear in terms of cost, time and performance objectives. PMBOK (PMBOK Guide, 2004) describes it as well as where they say that the objectives of look management are to increase the fortune and involve of positive cause and decrease the opportunity and bear on of events adverse to chuck objectives. Kendrick (2003 ) list septet benefits on the use of risk management visit Justification leap out risk management is undertaken primarily to improve the chances that a work out will achieve its objectives. era there are never any guarantees, broader cognizance of common failure modes and ideas that make makes more robust can importantly improve the odds of success. The primary goal of abide risk management is either to develop a credible foundation for each project, show that it is possible, or to evidence that the project is not feasible so that it can be repealed, aborted, or transformed 1.Lower Costs and Less booby hatch Adequate risk analysis reduces both the overall cost and the defeat caused by avoidable problems 4. The amount of rework and of unforeseen late project effort is minimised. acquaintance of the root causes of the authorizationly severe project problems enables project leaders and teams to work in ways that avoid these problems. Dealing with the causes of risk al so minimises fire-fighting and booby hatch during projects, much of which is focused short-term and bundles primarily with symptoms quite a than the intrinsic sources of the problems 1. Chadbourn (1999) describes it similarly when he likened the uncertainties to chaos, where a poorly designed project could be expound as a room full of mousetraps, each with a ping pong ball 5. Before you know it, mortal not under your control tosses in the first ball, thus havoc and chaos erupts 5. In the holy person project the mousetraps are gone. In their place there is a network of dominos, where each execute and re bring through could be foreseen 5. It is within the role of organisations to try and identify these mousetraps and replace them with an orderly power train of dominos 5.Project Priority and Management Support Support from managers and other project stakeholders and allegiance from the project team are more tardily won when projects are based on thorough, understandable infor mation 11. unsound projects may deject with lower priority, but a thorough risk plan, displaying competence and right preparation for possible problems, can improve the project priority 11. Whenever you are successful in raising the priority of your project, you importantly reduce project riskby opening doors, reducing obstacles, qualification resources available, and shortening queues for portions 11.Project Portfolio Management Achieving and maintaining an detach mix of current projects for an organisation uses risk data as a key factor. The ideal project portfolio includes both lower- and higher-risk projects in proportions that are consistent with the course objectives 13.Fine-Tuning Plans to squinch adventure riskiness analysis uncovers weaknesses in a project plan and triggers changes, new activities, and resource shifts that improve the project. danger analysis at the project level may also reveal needed shifts in overall project social system or basic assumption s 14.Establishing Management Reserve riskiness analysis demonstrates the uncertainty of project outcomes and is useful in setting reserves for schedule and/or resources. jeopardizey projects really require a window of time (or budget), instead of a single-point objective. While the project targets can be based on expectations (the roughly likely versions of the analysis), project commitments should be effected with less in-your-face goals, reflecting overall project risk. The target and committed objectives set a range for pleasant project results and provide visible identification of project risk 18.Project Communication and keep back Project dialogue is more trenchant when there is a solid, credible plan. take chances sound judgements also build awareness of project exposures for the project team, showing how painful the problems strength be and when and where they index occur. This causes people to work in ways that avoid project difficulties. seek data can also be very useful in negotiations with project sponsors. Using information about the likelihood and consequences of potential problems gives project teams more influence in defining objectives, find budgets, obtaining staff, setting deadlines, and negotiating project changes 18. fortune sound judgement stake Control in that positioning are two stages in the process of Project Risk Management, Risk Assessment and Risk Control. Risk Assessment can take place at any time during the project, though the sooner the better. However, Risk Control cannot be efficient without a previous Risk Assessment. Similarly, most people tend to believe that having performed a Risk Assessment, they have done all that is needed. Far too many projects spend a great deal of effort on Risk Assessment and then ignore Risk control all 19.Risk Assessment has three elementsIdentify UncertaintiesIn this element, the entire project plans are explored, with special focus on areas of uncertainty 20.Analyse Risk sIn this element, the requirement is to specify how the areas of uncertainty will have an impact on the performance of the project, either in duration, cost or meeting the users requirements 20. range RisksAt this stage the requirement is to establish which of the Risks identify should be eliminated completely 20. This step is only is carried out due to the potential extreme impact, which should have regular management attention, and which are sufficiently minor to avoid diminutive management attention 20.In the same way, Risk Control has three elements, as followsMitigate RisksAccording to Mobey et al (2002), risk moderateness would include taking the necessary actions that are possible in advance to reduce the effect of Risk. It is better to spend money on mitigation than to include contingency in the plan 20.Plan for EmergenciesFor all those Risks which are deemed to be world-shaking, have an emergency plan in place before it happens 19. touchstone and ControlThis involves tra cking the effects of the risks identify and managing them to a successful conclusion 19.Different strategiesThere are different strategies and orders that have different approaches toward risk management. JISC (Joint Information Systems Management) says that the focus for risk management should be on risks associate to the particular project, not project management in general (http//www.jisc.ac.uk/proj_manguide15.html). The overall goal according to Kendrick (2003) for risk management in a single project is to establish a credible plan consistent with business objectives and then to minimise the range of possible outcomes. That is why risk management in a project is about identifying potential risks, analyse the ones that have the greatest likelihood of occurring, grade their different levels of impact on the project and define a plan of how to avoid the risk and if it occurs how to reduce its impact (Heldman, 2005).Smith Merrit (2001) sees risk strategy as a five step process. F igure 3 shows the flow through the five-step process and lists deliverables from each step tincture 1 Identify risks that you could encounter crosswise all facets of the project 28.Step 2 Analyse these risks to determine what is operate them, how great their impact cleverness be, and how likely they are 28.Step 3 Prioritise and defend the risks so that you can choose those most important to resolve 28.Step 4 Plan how you will take action against the risks on this short list 28.Step 5 On a regular basis, proctor progress on your action plans, terminate action plans for risks that have been adequately resolved, and look for new risks 28.Frosdick (1997) also mentioned Strutts, definition of the judgment of risk analysis that is a viier stage process.Systematic assessment (period by item question every part of the system) 13.Identification of risks 13.Assessment of risks (frequencies and consequences) 13.Establish pleasurable/tolerable levels of risk 13.Evaluate the risks. Are t hey acceptable? Can they be reduced and at what cost?Determine whether the risks are as low as reasonably practicable 13.Determine risk reduction measures where appropriate 13.Risk Assessment EvaluationThere are many ways and different techniques to evaluate what the risks are, what the effect they have on the project and what measures can be put in if the risks should occur 19. Risk assessment is by most people divided into two areas, quantitative Risk Analysis and soft Risk Analysis. numericalIn its most basic form the formula for risk quantification is Rate of occurrence multiply by the impact of the event = risk. Methods based on this method are often called judge value analysis and include models like Annualized handout Expectancy (ALM), the Courtney formula, the Livermore Risk Analysis Methodology (LRAM) and Stochastic Dominance (Snyder, Rainer Jr., Carr 1991). The advantages of quantitative Risk Analysis methodologies are that they are good at identifying the most critica l areas that, if something happens, will have the largest impact on the project. There are also disadvantages to Quantitative Risk Analysis. When one measures the probability of damage to the project the quantitative approach tends to average the events leading up to a problem (Snyder, Rainer Jr, Carr 1991). softQualitative methods attempts to express risks in terms of descriptive variables or else than an economic impact. These approaches are based on the assumption that certain threat or loss of data cannot be appropriately expressed in terms of dollars or pounds and that precise information is impossible to obtain. These methodologies include Scenario Analysis/Planning, Fuzzy prosody and questionnaires (Snyder, Rainer Jr., Carr 1991). The advantages of Qualitative Risk Analysis methodologies are that they excuse time, effort and write down over quantitative methods. This is because assets do not need exact value in dollars or pounds nor do threats need to have exact probabilit ies. It is also a valuable methodology in identifying significant weaknesses in a risk management portfolio. There are disadvantages with this method as well. Qualitative Risk Analysis is inexact, the variables used (e.g. low, medium and high) must be silent by all parties involved (Snyder, Rainer Jr., Carr 1991).Risks Reduction at once risks have been identified and evaluated they have to be responded to in some way. Wideman (1992) lists seven basic responses on identified risksRecognised but no action taken ( jailed as a matter of policy)Avoided (by taking appropriate steps) minify (by an alternative approach) divided (with others, e.g., by joint venture)Transferred (to others through contract or insurance)Retained and absorbed (by prudent allowances)Handled by a combination of the preceding(prenominal)Dorfman (1997) says that all techniques to manage the risk fall into one or more of these four study categories (remembered as the 4 Ts)Tolerate (aka Retention)Treat (aka Mitigat ion) suppress (aka Elimination)Transfer (aka get Insurance)Bliss (2005) listed these five types of similar risk responses as Dorfman and Wideman.Risk escape Also known as risk removal or risk prevention, risk avoidance involves altering the original plans for the project so that oddly risky elements are removed. It could include deciding not to perform an activity that carries a high risk. Adopting such avoidance techniques may seem an explicit way to deal with all risks. However, often the areas of the project that involve high risks are also the areas of the project that potentially stop the highest worth or the best value for money. Avoiding such risks may also result in removing potentially the best bits of a resource, and an alternative strategy that retains these risks may be more appropriate 13.Risk reduction Risk reduction or risk mitigation involves the employment of methods that reduce the probability of a risk occurring, or reducing the severity of the impact of a r isk on the outcome of the project. The loss of highly skilled staff is a tidy risk in any project and not one that can be totally avoided. Suitable risk mitigation could involve the enforcement of a notice period, comprehensive documentation allowing for replacement staff to continue with the ponder at hand and adequate management inadvertence and the use of staff development programmes to encourage staff to stay 20.Risk transfer Risk transfer moves the ownership of the risk to a tierce party unremarkably by contract. This also moves the impact of the risk forward from the project itself to this tercet party 20.Risk deferral The impact a risk can have on a project is not constant passim the life of a project. Risk deferral entails deferring aspects of the project to a run into when a risk is less likely to happen. For sample managing the expectations users have about the content and delivery of a resource can be time-consuming, one way to reduce this risk is by not making a web resource available until user testing is complete 20.Risk retention Whilst a certain number of the risks to the project originally identified can be removed by ever-changing the project plan or dealt with by transferring the responsibility of the risk to third parties inevitably certain risks have to be accepted as a necessary part of the project. All risks that have not been avoided or transferred are retained or accepted risks by default 20.Previous undefeated Project St Pancras external Rail StationAccording to XXXXXX, before St Pancras world-wide rail stake was opened a number of days were utilise to testing all the systems and processes, using an army of thousands of volunteer passengers. These tests were carried out much before the opening day, thus providing enough time to resolve issues that skill have occurred during testing 26.By carrying out the testing in phases much long before the opening, members of staff were able to familiarize themselves with the systems and get literal hands-on experience before the station was opened to Eurostar traffic. Dry-runs were carried out as well with the live lessons were learnt and adjustments made before exposing paying customers to the St Pancras experience. Inevitably the result was that on the opening day, everything went without glitches on the first day of international service 26.Previous Failed Project capital of Colorado worldwide AirportThe Denver International Airport was scheduled to open on October 31, 1993 with all three of its concourses fully running on the BAE automatise baggage handling system that. On February 28, 1995, the new aerodrome finally opened. Its opening came sixteen months late. The alter baggage system was so-called to improve baggage handling by using a electronic computer tracking system to direct baggage contained in unmanned carts that run on a track. BAE systems presented the City of Denver with a proposal to develop the most complex and automated and integrat ed baggage system ever built. master key target opening date for the airport was (delayed seven times over the next three months). City of Denver invited reporters to prise the first test of the baggage system without notifying BAE. This was a public hap Reporters saw stacks of disgorged clothes and other personal items lying to a lower place the Telecars tracks.Lots of machinelike and software problems plagued the automated baggage handling system. When the system was tested, bags were misloaded, sent to different routes, and fell out of automated telecarts, thus cause the system to jam. The automated baggage system still continued to drop down bags even though they were jammed on the conveyor belt, because the photo inwardness at this location could not detect the pile of bags on the belt and hence could not signal the system to stop.Main LessonsOne of the lessons BA and BAA might have been learnt from the Denver project, was that BAE actually built a prototype of the aut omated baggage handling system in a 50,000 sq. ft. warehouse adjacent its manufacturing plant in Texas. But as similar to the T5 project, there was no evidence of adequate training and the results from simulation testing has been proven to be different to a real world scenario with real customers. I addition, enquiry also shows that BAE had given an initial estimate of at least a year to test the system and get the system up and running, but United airlines and the other stakeholders pressed for a much shorter timeframe. City of Denver got the same story from technical advisers to the Franz Joseph Strauss airport in Munich (that less complicated system had taken 2 years testing and was running 24 hours a day for 6 months before the airport opened.Risks recognised azoic in the ProjectVery large scale of the project.Enormous complexity.Newness of the technology. blown-up number of entities to be served by the system.The high spirit level of technical and project definition uncertai nty.Risk IdentificationPMBOK (PMBOK Guide, 2004) lists five tools and techniques for risk identificRisk Management of Terminal Development at AirportRisk Management of Terminal Development at AirportDissertation ObjectivesInvestigate the problems at the terminal 5 opening, especially with the baggage handling system despite extensive simulated testing using thousands of bags and more than two thousand volunteers in the run up to the opening of T5Identify the necessary risk strategies to be considered for such mega-projects, the benefits of such approaches, taking into account previous failed and successful projects, and any lessons to be learnt Discuss the implementation approach adopted by BAA and the risk associated with this approachProvide formative evaluation summarising key findings and conclusion based on evidence gathered from researchT5 SynopsisThe terminal 5 project in addition to being a statement of intent for the future of British aviation was built with the aim of impr oving customer experience and to exhibit Heathrow as a world class international airport. The baggage handling system at T5 was designed to be the largest baggage handling system in Europe for a single terminal. The system consists of a main baggage sorter and a fast track system. The system was designed by an integrated team from BAA, BA and Vanderlande Industries of the Netherlands, with the aim of handling both intra-terminal and inter-terminal luggage. Its processing capacity was intended to be 70,000 bags a day. Bags are meant to undergo several processes on the way through the system, these include automatic identification, explosives screening, fast tracking for urgent bags, sorting and automatic sorting and passenger reconciliation.The scheduled completion and opening date was March 2008, and T5 was on time and on budget. This was a remarkable achievement especially in a sector where project delays and vast overspends are commonplace (the Millennium dome, Wembley stadium and the Scottish Parliament buildings were all opened late and cost a lot more than the original estimate). However, on its first day in operation, T5s bespoke baggage system was affected by technical software problems, which led to a number of issues, such as cancelled flights, lost baggage, and substantial delays, but more importantly, BAs challenge were its people issues and integrating teams of staff. Initial reports suggest that the day one issues were less to do with technology issues and more to do with inadequate staff training, and this was not just for one group of people but at all levels. Below is a summary of its problems on the opening dayHundreds of staff found it difficult finding the staff car park entranceCheck-in staff struggled with their systems, these problems ranged from very simple tasks such as logging into the baggage system to complex tasksSecurity personnel who were totally ignorant of their new roles and had to be taken through new procedures in the morning in front of passengersGround staff and crews and ground staff getting lost in the huge buildingBaggage handlers struggled to get a hang of the new baggage systemBaggage truck drivers got lost within the terminal and needed directions to the aircraftBaggage drivers and handlers could not get luggage from the conveyors to the gatesOn nine occasions, inspectors from the department of transport had managed to bypass security checks during trials of the terminals new systems and that the terminals alarm system was not working properlyGoing through these problems therefore suggest that the entire problem was down to lack of adequate training or simply inappropriate appraisal of risk involved. This is very surprising as this was a very high profile project and taking into account that this was a simple 3 team process get baggage, take baggage to aircraft and load baggage onto aircraft.Training System Testing Prior to OpeningBased on initial interviews with BAs CIO, it would suggest that the human elements were given the importance it required. BAs CIO, Paul Coby told CIO UK in March 2007 the IT work to support such a large-scale, new-build project was also going well. Devices are deployed, connections are being integrated and 2007 will be testing year. The airline is moving onto the T5 systems, so they run for a year ready to operate at the new terminal when it opens in 2008.According to XXXXX, in the run up to the opening of T5 there were a series of overnight baggage-systems tests using thousands of bags, up to 2000 volunteers and full trials of the check-in procedure for all the IT systems. According to the spokesman for Vanderlande Industries, in testing the baggage handling system, emulation models were utilized broadly to test the low-level controls software, while computer programs took the place of the baggage handling system, and which extend (almost) the same as the part they replace. The report also suggests that for the high-level controls software, t he emulation model was broadened by connecting the loose individual models into a large integrated system in which the physical equipment was replaced by a number of interconnected emulation models. According to a number of the volunteers who tested the system prior to its opening commented that the demos were extremely impressive and felt the system was ready in advance of its opening.T5 System Simulation Prior to OpeningAccording to the spokesman for Vanderlande Industries, low-level emulation models were utilized in place of the physical transport equipment in each of the conveyor lines. The low and high level models that were developed produced the same electrical outputs in response to the same electrical inputs as their corresponding physical equivalent (motors, photo-electric cells, barcode scanners, etc), which in the view of both the software developers and management of BA, proof of extensive system testing. System interaction was facilitated with the use of control panels , and with the right frequency, set of bags or multiple bags were generated. During the testing, the conveyor motors were stopped and started utilizing different scenarios in order to generate as much errors as possible with the hope of fixing them. The spokesman also stated that the transport time between two photocells in emulation was equal to the actual time using the real equipment. The same measurement also applied to the total transport time.In addition, during testing the T5 project, over 90 individual low-level emulation models were created as individual models were integrated into 5 different configurations. A separate team spent 4800 hours on building and testing these emulation models.Questions Training TestingBut the first set of questions now has to be asked how adequate was the tests and training were carried out in relation to T5s baggage systems in advance of the opening? What were the results? What were the problems revealed? and what steps were taken to resolve t he problems revealed? Were the tests re-run and, if so, what was the result? Was the right implementation strategy adopted? Or would it not have been better to open Terminal 5 on a phased basis, to make sure that all its systems were working before going fully operational?The second set of questions to be asked would be knowing that extensive simulation testing was carried out on the baggage system successfully doesnt that then suggest that carrying out simulated testing without the real customers is inadequate? With regards to the people issues, what sort of dry runs were carried out? If they were indeed adequate, why were the opening day hiccups not identified? Where there extra staff or volunteers in anticipation of potential glitches? If yes were these trained adequately? For every eventuality or possible scenario, what were the contingency plans?In spite of the extensive testing carried out on the baggage system and the confidence which this would have placed on top management, from the experience on the opening day, we can conclude that in reality, the prospects of operating an airport terminal of such magnitude and scale would require more than simulated testing as the operations are virtually impossible to fully replicate. This then suggests that the risk management utilized by the BA was not robust to take the people issues into account. Good risk management might have come to the conclusion, if there was the possibility of failure.Risk Management DefinitionsIn order to manage risks we have to understand what a risk is. Smith and Merrit (2002) said that three essential aspects of risk are uncertainty, loss and time, see Figure 1.Uncertainty A project manager has to identify as many uncertainties as possible. A risk may or may not happen. This inherent uncertainty cannot be eliminated, but it can be made little clearer by clarifying the probability of occurrence of the risk, to get at better understanding of the consequences and alternatives if the ris k occurs and determine the factors that influence the magnitude and likelihood of occurrence of the particular risk. This means that an uncertainty can never be completely eliminated, but it can be reduced to a level the project find tolerable. This means that even with the best plans there cannot be any guarantees that there will be no surprises 3.Loss A risk is always something that involves some kind of loss. If there is no loss possible, then the project is not concerned about the risk, because it cannot compromise the project 3.Time Associated with every risk there is a time where the risk no longer exists. Either the risk has occurred and the loss has been suffered or the potential problems that could cause the risk have been resolved and no longer pose a threat. It is important to know when this time has arrived so the risk can be removed from the agenda 3.Among writers and in the literature there are differences in the meaning of risk management and risk analysis. Frosdick ( 1997) says that there are no clear views of the differences and what one writer defines as risk management another writer is calling it risk analysis. Frosdicks own view is that he separates them by saying that risk analysis is the sum of the processes of risk identification, estimation and evaluation and risk management is about planning, monitoring and controlling activities that are produced by the risk analysis activity.The Association for Project Management (Chapman, Simister 2004) definition of risk analysis is similar to Frosdicks, they have however divided the risk analysis into two stages. The first stage is called the Qualitative Analysis and it is where risks are identified and subjectively assessed. These identified risks are then analysed in terms of e.g. cost and time estimates and that is called the Quantitative Analysis. Just like for Frosdick it is then followed by the risk management process. In their definition it is the process of formulating responses, both proa ctive and reactive ones.Pennock Haimes (2001) said that risk management could be represented in six steps, three each for risk assessment/analysis and risk management, where each step is a question.Risk assessment/analysisWhat can go wrong? Identify as many risks as possible. The risks can be of any kind financial, time, resources etc. and no risk is too small to not be included 3.What is the likelihood for the risk to occur? Try to measure how likely, or unlikely, it is for the risk to occur. Maybe some risks are dependent on each other 3.What are the consequences? What will be the impact on the project if the risk occurs, is it a minor risk or maybe a stopping fault that endangers the whole project 3.Risk managementWhat can be done and what options are available? How to decrease the chance of a risk occurring, for example get more resources or have them readily available 2,3.What are the tradeoffs in term of all costs, benefits and risks among the available options? For every ris k there is somewhere a limit for how costly measures one can put in, where there is no economy in putting in more measures. Often the budget is not enough to eliminate all risks therefore one must choose which risks to put more emphasis on 2,3.What are the impacts on current decisions on future options? 3The official definition provided by Professor James Garven, University of Texas at Austin is from the American Risk and Insurance Association Risk management is the systematic process of managing an organizations risk exposures to achieve its objectives in a manner consistent with public interest, human safety, environmental factors, and the law. It consists of the planning, organizing, leading, coordinating, and controlling activities undertaken with the intent of providing an efficient pre-loss plan that minimizes the adverse impact of risk on the organizations resources, earnings, and cash flows.Another definition given by Larry Krantz, Chief Executive of Euro Log Ltd in the UK, states that A risk is a combination of constraint and uncertainty. We all face constraints in our projects, and also uncertainty. So we can minimise the risk in the project either by eliminating constraints (a nice conceit) or by finding and reducing uncertainty .The objectives of risk management/analysisThe Association for Project Management (Chapman, Simister 2004) defines Risk Management/Analysis as a process designed to remove or reduce the risks that threaten the achievement of project objectives. Properly undertaken it will increase the likelihood of successful completion of a project in terms of cost, time and performance objectives. PMBOK (PMBOK Guide, 2004) describes it similarly where they say that the objectives of project management are to increase the probability and impact of positive effects and decrease the probability and impact of events adverse to project objectives. Kendrick (2003) list seven benefits on the use of risk managementProject Justification Project ris k management is undertaken primarily to improve the chances that a project will achieve its objectives. While there are never any guarantees, broader awareness of common failure modes and ideas that make projects more robust can significantly improve the odds of success. The primary goal of project risk management is either to develop a credible foundation for each project, showing that it is possible, or to demonstrate that the project is not feasible so that it can be avoided, aborted, or transformed 1.Lower Costs and Less Chaos Adequate risk analysis reduces both the overall cost and the frustration caused by avoidable problems 4. The amount of rework and of unforeseen late project effort is minimised. Knowledge of the root causes of the potentially severe project problems enables project leaders and teams to work in ways that avoid these problems. Dealing with the causes of risk also minimises fire-fighting and chaos during projects, much of which is focused short-term and deals primarily with symptoms rather than the intrinsic sources of the problems 1. Chadbourn (1999) describes it similarly when he likened the uncertainties to chaos, where a poorly designed project could be described as a room full of mousetraps, each with a ping pong ball 5. Before you know it, someone not under your control tosses in the first ball, thus mayhem and chaos erupts 5. In the ideal project the mousetraps are gone. In their place there is a network of dominos, where each action and reaction could be foreseen 5. It is within the role of organisations to try and identify these mousetraps and replace them with an orderly string of dominos 5.Project Priority and Management Support Support from managers and other project stakeholders and commitment from the project team are more easily won when projects are based on thorough, understandable information 11. High-risk projects may begin with lower priority, but a thorough risk plan, displaying competence and good preparation for p ossible problems, can improve the project priority 11. Whenever you are successful in raising the priority of your project, you significantly reduce project riskby opening doors, reducing obstacles, making resources available, and shortening queues for work 11.Project Portfolio Management Achieving and maintaining an appropriate mix of ongoing projects for an organisation uses risk data as a key factor. The ideal project portfolio includes both lower- and higher-risk projects in proportions that are consistent with the business objectives 13.Fine-Tuning Plans to Reduce Risk Risk analysis uncovers weaknesses in a project plan and triggers changes, new activities, and resource shifts that improve the project. Risk analysis at the project level may also reveal needed shifts in overall project structure or basic assumptions 14.Establishing Management Reserve Risk analysis demonstrates the uncertainty of project outcomes and is useful in setting reserves for schedule and/or resources. R isky projects really require a window of time (or budget), instead of a single-point objective. While the project targets can be based on expectations (the most likely versions of the analysis), project commitments should be established with less aggressive goals, reflecting overall project risk. The target and committed objectives set a range for acceptable project results and provide visible recognition of project risk 18.Project Communication and Control Project communication is more effective when there is a solid, credible plan. Risk assessments also build awareness of project exposures for the project team, showing how painful the problems might be and when and where they might occur. This causes people to work in ways that avoid project difficulties. Risk data can also be very useful in negotiations with project sponsors. Using information about the likelihood and consequences of potential problems gives project teams more influence in defining objectives, determining budgets , obtaining staff, setting deadlines, and negotiating project changes 18.Risk Assessment Risk ControlThere are two stages in the process of Project Risk Management, Risk Assessment and Risk Control. Risk Assessment can take place at any time during the project, though the sooner the better. However, Risk Control cannot be effective without a previous Risk Assessment. Similarly, most people tend to think that having performed a Risk Assessment, they have done all that is needed. Far too many projects spend a great deal of effort on Risk Assessment and then ignore Risk control completely 19.Risk Assessment has three elementsIdentify UncertaintiesIn this element, the entire project plans are explored, with special focus on areas of uncertainty 20.Analyse RisksIn this element, the requirement is to specify how the areas of uncertainty will have an impact on the performance of the project, either in duration, cost or meeting the users requirements 20.Prioritise RisksAt this stage the re quirement is to establish which of the Risks identified should be eliminated completely 20. This step is only is carried out due to the potential extreme impact, which should have regular management attention, and which are sufficiently minor to avoid detailed management attention 20.In the same way, Risk Control has three elements, as followsMitigate RisksAccording to Mobey et al (2002), risk mitigation would include taking the necessary actions that are possible in advance to reduce the effect of Risk. It is better to spend money on mitigation than to include contingency in the plan 20.Plan for EmergenciesFor all those Risks which are deemed to be significant, have an emergency plan in place before it happens 19.Measure and ControlThis involves tracking the effects of the risks identified and managing them to a successful conclusion 19.Different strategiesThere are different strategies and methods that have different approaches toward risk management. JISC (Joint Information Syste ms Management) says that the focus for risk management should be on risks related to the particular project, not project management in general (http//www.jisc.ac.uk/proj_manguide15.html). The overall goal according to Kendrick (2003) for risk management in a single project is to establish a credible plan consistent with business objectives and then to minimise the range of possible outcomes. That is why risk management in a project is about identifying potential risks, analyse the ones that have the greatest likelihood of occurring, grade their different levels of impact on the project and define a plan of how to avoid the risk and if it occurs how to reduce its impact (Heldman, 2005).Smith Merrit (2001) sees risk strategy as a five step process. Figure 3 shows the flow through the five-step process and lists deliverables from each stepStep 1 Identify risks that you could encounter across all facets of the project 28.Step 2 Analyse these risks to determine what is driving them, how great their impact might be, and how likely they are 28.Step 3 Prioritise and map the risks so that you can choose those most important to resolve 28.Step 4 Plan how you will take action against the risks on this short list 28.Step 5 On a regular basis, monitor progress on your action plans, terminate action plans for risks that have been adequately resolved, and look for new risks 28.Frosdick (1997) also mentioned Strutts, definition of the concept of risk analysis that is a seven stage process.Systematic assessment (item by item question every part of the system) 13.Identification of risks 13.Assessment of risks (frequencies and consequences) 13.Establish acceptable/tolerable levels of risk 13.Evaluate the risks. Are they acceptable? Can they be reduced and at what cost?Determine whether the risks are as low as reasonably practicable 13.Determine risk reduction measures where appropriate 13.Risk Assessment EvaluationThere are many ways and different techniques to evaluate what the risks are, what the effect they have on the project and what measures can be put in if the risks should occur 19. Risk assessment is by most people divided into two areas, Quantitative Risk Analysis and Qualitative Risk Analysis.QuantitativeIn its most basic form the formula for risk quantification is Rate of occurrence multiplied by the impact of the event = risk. Methods based on this method are often called expected value analysis and include models like Annualized Loss Expectancy (ALM), the Courtney formula, the Livermore Risk Analysis Methodology (LRAM) and Stochastic Dominance (Snyder, Rainer Jr., Carr 1991). The advantages of Quantitative Risk Analysis methodologies are that they are good at identifying the most critical areas that, if something happens, will have the largest impact on the project. There are also disadvantages to Quantitative Risk Analysis. When one measures the probability of damage to the project the quantitative approach tends to average the events lea ding up to a problem (Snyder, Rainer Jr, Carr 1991).QualitativeQualitative methods attempts to express risks in terms of descriptive variables rather than an economic impact. These approaches are based on the assumption that certain threat or loss of data cannot be appropriately expressed in terms of dollars or pounds and that precise information is impossible to obtain. These methodologies include Scenario Analysis/Planning, Fuzzy Metrics and questionnaires (Snyder, Rainer Jr., Carr 1991). The advantages of Qualitative Risk Analysis methodologies are that they save time, effort and expense over quantitative methods. This is because assets do not need exact values in dollars or pounds nor do threats need to have exact probabilities. It is also a valuable methodology in identifying significant weaknesses in a risk management portfolio. There are disadvantages with this method as well. Qualitative Risk Analysis is inexact, the variables used (e.g. low, medium and high) must be underst ood by all parties involved (Snyder, Rainer Jr., Carr 1991).Risks ReductionOnce risks have been identified and evaluated they have to be responded to in some way. Wideman (1992) lists seven basic responses on identified risksRecognised but no action taken (absorbed as a matter of policy)Avoided (by taking appropriate steps)Reduced (by an alternative approach)Shared (with others, e.g., by joint venture)Transferred (to others through contract or insurance)Retained and absorbed (by prudent allowances)Handled by a combination of the aboveDorfman (1997) says that all techniques to manage the risk fall into one or more of these four major categories (remembered as the 4 Ts)Tolerate (aka Retention)Treat (aka Mitigation)Terminate (aka Elimination)Transfer (aka Buying Insurance)Bliss (2005) listed these five types of similar risk responses as Dorfman and Wideman.Risk avoidance Also known as risk removal or risk prevention, risk avoidance involves altering the original plans for the project s o that particularly risky elements are removed. It could include deciding not to perform an activity that carries a high risk. Adopting such avoidance techniques may seem an obvious way to deal with all risks. However, often the areas of the project that involve high risks are also the areas of the project that potentially contain the highest worth or the best value for money. Avoiding such risks may also result in removing potentially the best bits of a resource, and an alternative strategy that retains these risks may be more appropriate 13.Risk reduction Risk reduction or risk mitigation involves the employment of methods that reduce the probability of a risk occurring, or reducing the severity of the impact of a risk on the outcome of the project. The loss of highly skilled staff is a considerable risk in any project and not one that can be totally avoided. Suitable risk mitigation could involve the enforcement of a notice period, comprehensive documentation allowing for replace ment staff to continue with the job at hand and adequate management oversight and the use of staff development programmes to encourage staff to stay 20.Risk transfer Risk transfer moves the ownership of the risk to a third party normally by contract. This also moves the impact of the risk away from the project itself to this third party 20.Risk deferral The impact a risk can have on a project is not constant throughout the life of a project. Risk deferral entails deferring aspects of the project to a date when a risk is less likely to happen. For example managing the expectations users have about the content and delivery of a resource can be time-consuming, one way to reduce this risk is by not making a web resource available until user testing is complete 20.Risk retention Whilst a certain number of the risks to the project originally identified can be removed by changing the project plan or dealt with by transferring the responsibility of the risk to third parties inevitably certa in risks have to be accepted as a necessary part of the project. All risks that have not been avoided or transferred are retained or accepted risks by default 20.Previous Successful Project St Pancras International Rail StationAccording to XXXXXX, before St Pancras International rail station was opened a number of days were devoted to testing all the systems and processes, using an army of thousands of volunteer passengers. These tests were carried out much before the opening day, thus providing enough time to resolve issues that might have occurred during testing 26.By carrying out the testing in phases much long before the opening, members of staff were able to familiarize themselves with the systems and get actual hands-on experience before the station was opened to Eurostar traffic. Dry-runs were carried out as well with the vital lessons were learnt and adjustments made before exposing paying customers to the St Pancras experience. Inevitably the result was that on the opening day, everything went without glitches on the first day of international service 26.Previous Failed Project Denver International AirportThe Denver International Airport was scheduled to open on October 31, 1993 with all three of its concourses fully running on the BAE automated baggage handling system that. On February 28, 1995, the new airport finally opened. Its opening came sixteen months late. The automated baggage system was supposed to improve baggage handling by using a computer tracking system to direct baggage contained in unmanned carts that run on a track. BAE systems presented the City of Denver with a proposal to develop the most complex and automated and integrated baggage system ever built. Original target opening date for the airport was (delayed seven times over the next three months). City of Denver invited reporters to observe the first test of the baggage system without notifying BAE. This was a public disaster Reporters saw piles of disgorged clothes and other pe rsonal items lying beneath the Telecars tracks.Lots of mechanical and software problems plagued the automated baggage handling system. When the system was tested, bags were misloaded, sent to different routes, and fell out of automated telecarts, thus causing the system to jam. The automated baggage system still continued to unload bags even though they were jammed on the conveyor belt, because the photo eye at this location could not detect the pile of bags on the belt and hence could not signal the system to stop.Main LessonsOne of the lessons BA and BAA might have been learnt from the Denver project, was that BAE actually built a prototype of the automated baggage handling system in a 50,000 sq. ft. warehouse near its manufacturing plant in Texas. But as similar to the T5 project, there was no evidence of adequate training and the results from simulation testing has been proven to be different to a real world scenario with real customers. I addition, research also shows that BAE had given an initial estimate of at least a year to test the system and get the system up and running, but United airlines and the other stakeholders pressed for a much shorter timeframe. City of Denver got the same story from technical advisers to the Franz Joseph Strauss airport in Munich (that less complicated system had taken 2 years testing and was running 24 hours a day for 6 months before the airport opened.Risks recognised early in the ProjectVery large scale of the project.Enormous complexity.Newness of the technology.Large number of entities to be served by the system.The high degree of technical and project definition uncertainty.Risk IdentificationPMBOK (PMBOK Guide, 2004) lists five tools and techniques for risk identific

Homelessness Act 2002 Analysis

Homelessness bear 2002 AnalysisAssessing the new unsett directness strategies introduced by the Homelessness comport 2002 argon the lodging inescapably of the preteen roofless in the UK closer to macrocosm adequately intercommunicate?ChaptersIntroduction knave 3Homelessness wager 2002 Young People paginate 5Distinctive Qualities of Y forbiddenh HomelessnessPage 10Local governance and Discretion Post-2002..Page 12Lack of Monitoring Procedures / Inadequacy of mathematical process Indicators.Page 12Diversity or Chaos beneath the Homelessness represent 2002.Page 15 precession NeedPage 18Conclusion. Page 20BibliographyPage 21We turn over arms of mass destruction we constitute to address hither at home. Poverty is a weapon of mass destruction. Homelessness is a weapon of mass destruction. Unemployment is a weapon of mass destruction.Dennis Kucinich1IntroductionProperty, as a jurisprudential concept, holds a lot of sway in liberal philosophic thought. We see home as a primaeval theme for such institutional writers as Locke, Hegel, Kant and Nozick who see Property Rights as handtaboo to the rivet of sancti unriv altogetheredd behavioural semblances among men2. hence in a purely philosophical manner the Homeless ar truly voteless from the to a lower placelying rationale of uprightness. This pervasive attitude also channelises to a disenfranchisement across a physical body of important accessible spheres such as voting, elevator money and unemployment bene equip However, we recognise limits on alone property rights in order to help disadvantaged, for example the Family Law Act 1996 recognises rights for a better half who suffers domestic abuse3. This execute is concerned to look at the quantitative and soft outcomes for issue4 roofless good plug actiond by the statutory frame stool, how does this demographic f atomic number 18 prone their no-property status?The importance of this critical review article can non be benea thestimated. In the U.K. it is a popular line which despite economic prosperity, a orphic house market boom, and a raft of commandment and homelessness initiatives, recorded aims of homelessness in the U.K. remain pig-headedly high5 and in recent years the problem was more than unimaginatively described as taking us back towards the deep social divisions of Victorian society a moment in history than no one wants to see absorbed6 However, despite its persistent record and damaging social effects in that location is a dearth of sure academic research on the topic as a whole. This work banks to contribute to an ara which desperately exacts fibre academic attention. Secondly, this review is prompted by similar governing observations that suggest a review of the legislative apparatus is mlyIt is our view that there should not be homeless passel in the UK in 2004. A home is a unfathomed right which should not be denied to everyone aliveness in as plenteous and ambitious a society as our admit.7The Select Committee gum olibanumly goes onto argue that a review of the workings of the 2002 Act would identify the light any(prenominal) spots for the regimen8. This work pass oning tolerate out such a review. However, bankruptn the limitation of space it focuses on the young homeless. In recent years this demographic has been receiving more academic and media attention than separates votelessly because of the prevalence of offspring homelessness within England in 2004 it was estimated that up to 52,000 young stack mingled with the ages of 16-25 were homeless and at any rate that this demographic accounts for a quarter of all the homeless through and throughout the U.K.9. However, whilst there may be a primerable floor of peripheral aw arness of this pillowcase as a social problem which has particular risks and difficulties associated with it there has been no controlling published research on the authorization of the homele ss strategies, implemented on a lower floor the Homelessness Act 2002, as it applies to this demographic. This work testament attempt to fill this keep down and give some guidance on the direction of any review or re gradation of the legislative apparatus.Homelessness Act 2002 Young PeopleThe Homelessness Act 2002 was the culmination of a significant policy from New elbow grease which, obviously, thus leave alones the underlying rationale of the statute. If we be to understand what reforms to the content or rationale be required from our qualitative and quantitative analyses of the transaction of the statute we choose to first-class honours degree understand what the existing structure represents.Whilst it is fair to say that the UK has a lengthy history of voluntary and statutory cooking for homeless wad10 statutory intervention on a great(p) scale was not comprehensively implemented until the introduction of the living adaptions (Homeless Persons) Act 1977. However , for more commentators this legislation was seen as an ineffective and inadequate sanction of resolving the problems of many homeless persons11. There were many problems with the legislation which we will legal briefly prcis so as to provide a comparator to the 2002 Act. A large degree of discretionary decision-making was left in the hands of topical anesthetic anesthetic anaesthetic anaesthetic anaesthetic ho using authorities12 which meant that hosts of homeless people who didnt satisfy the priority bring criteria or other statutory requisites for other groups of homeless people had virtually no protection13. The 1977 Act frame-up a 2-tiered appeal which imposed different duties on the topical anesthetic ascendency at each level. Its initial duties operated when an individual made an application to the local house authority which indicated a possibility that the person may all(prenominal) be homeless or threatened with homelessness14. Accommodation would hen ce unless be provided if the local authority had done an investigation and had reasonable pace for believing the facts of the application and the person fell into a category of priority rent. Otherwise the trading was one of advice and appropriate assistance15. Furthermore, the extent of the transaction to provide accommodation upgrade covered a decimal organise of time reasonable to enable the applicant to secure housing on his own16. The system setup had a narrowing effect in that there were large groups of people, typically non-parent whizz individuals17, who had to rely on charity or voluntary services to provide any kind of accommodation. This system was argued to ready lead to an unprecedented increase in street homelessness in the U.K.18.The period between the 1980s and 1997 was mirrored by an exponential growth in NGO agencies providing have to the homeless in stark contrast to the breeze through leave out of statutory change, although consolidation did occur in the Housing Act 1996. There were Government sponsored programmes such as the Rough Sleepers Initiative and supporting People which transcended many professions such as housing, health, social work, education and employment. These multi-agency initiatives have been seen as vital to the ending of homelessness notwithstanding there was always a fear over the disjointed and inefficient nature of these many statutory and voluntary agencies as well as confusion to the individual approach with homelessness19. As of 5th May 2006 there is a new UK government department for Communities and Local Government, taking over from the Homelessness Directorate within the placement of the Deputy Prime Minister, which is now in charge of overseeing the current example.The Labour Government came to power in 1997 on the back of a pronunciamento pledge that they would impose a new commerce on local authorities to protect those who are homeless through no shortcoming of their own and are in prio rity direct20. The DETR21 published the Housing Green Paper in April 2000 which outlined the intention of the government this was then introduced in the form of the Homes Bill which fell because of the proroguement of parliament for the general election. However, this was quickly followed by another bill that in time became the Homelessness Act 2002 that received Royal Assent on 26th February 2002The 2002 Act made some very significant changes to the antecedent statutory framework detailed above22. The central provision was a requirement displace upon local authorities to carry out a review of homelessness in their area and publish strategies to bruise this within 12 months of the passing of the Act and to be renewed every five dollar bill years23. These included audits of current levels of homelessness, programs for biting, preventing or alleviating homelessness. The upbringing gathered under the review was then to be scrutinised and the system would build upon any stre ngths and unbosom weaknesses24. This was part of a clearer focus on devolving responsibility for tackling homelessness at a local level however the Act did also modify the pre-existent law by amending the Housing Act 1996.Whilst not implementing a duty it did give local housing authorities the discretionary power to give unintentionally homeless applicants not in priority need accommodation whereas the duty before was advice and assistance. The latter duty be quiet exists but is more clearly defined and requires an investigation into the individuals circumstances and inescapably. The hope of the government was that these two provisions combinedcan be use by applicants to argue that local authorities should consider referrals of applicants not in priority need to registered social landlords25. There was formerly a two year time limit on the duty to provide housing but the Act now requires more than simply time sink including refusal of unsuitable accommodation, intentional homele ssness or a change in circumstances26. This provision will introduce a lot more equity into the law and its arbitrary time limits. The largest change to the law was doubtlessly wrought through ss.13 16 which completely change the rules on allocation of a property in particular the power of the local authorities to power to come out particular(prenominal) groups from priority need and reduce other priority27. Exclusion is permitted to individuals subject to immigration control or those deemed unsuitable by reason of their insufferable behaviour28. Behaviour in general is also permitted as a reason for reducing the priority of an individual29. Local regimen are still provided with discretion to create an allocation precis but in determine preferences to be given in that scheme the definition of homelessness was widened to include all homeless, even those who are intentionally so or are not in priority need. The idea here is that in allocating on hand(predicate) housing to all ho meless people, rather than those that the local authority has a pre-existent duty to provide accommodation to, will clearly be more equitable30.For the sake of brevity the other main changes are bullet-pointedLocal authorities are able to expand assured tenancies and assured short-hold tenancies provided by private landlords in order to meet their duty to provide accommodation. However, refusal of such an offer doesnt discharge the duty of the local authority as it unremarkably would.The protections surrounding domestic violence are ex lamed to those not solely actually hurt but also those threatened with violence.A requirement that social security services cooperate with housing authorities this is to combat those families that are intentionally homeless with children.In summary the 2002 Act placed a often higher(prenominal) emphasis on the responsibility of local authorities through the review and scheme requirements whilst also making relatively minor amendments to the pre-e xistent structure which were principally designed to ex die hard local authorities duties and powers regarding the homeless. A large part of this work will abide on the discretion of local authorities as detailed above in particular looking at whether the Act had created disparity between local authorities and a need of meaningful supervise of the operation of discretion or whether the approach by local authorities has lead to more flexibility and choice for individuals. This will be a qualitative assessment of the impact of the Act however we will also have regard to substantive aspects and ask whether the definitions of priority need and homelessness31 adequately put up for the urgent need of young, 16-25 year old, persons. It is worth just noting at this point that the Act and the surrounding government publications do not mention young homelessness as a target but homelessness in general. It is therefore judge that we may be critiquing the Act for things outside its origin al remit however given the importance of this demographic any failing will be considered a large one.Distinctive Qualities of Youth HomelessnessThe fundamental question for this work is to assess whether or not the Homelessness Act 2002 has to any degree travel the U.K. closer to addressing the require of young homeless persons. However, in doing this what we have to be aware of is that homeless people are a heterogeneous group with diverse social, economic and health call for32. The exposition of these particularistic needs has not always been made explicit but to some degree it needs to be done so for this work to be of any importance. In other words, what are the specific needs of the callowness homeless demographic?This is a difficult question and in itself could form the understructure of a very much larger work however it is possible to collect from some sources that there are a few predominant needs of the juvenility demographic which we can use to evaluate the effecti veness of the measures under the 2002 Act. One clear need is that of information, whilst always important the thing is more acute in youth homelessness given their relative inexperience and lack of social awareness33. As a logical corollary to this it would include training rung and volunteers on how to relate such information to children34. In general this is demand because unlike other demographics there is a lack of self-direction or financial resources35, extremely high emotional and financial exploitability leading to higher risk of mental illness or disease of some form36. The problems with self-sufficiency and financial resources are explained because a youth group will tend to have little education, qualifications or job experience. This is coupled with the fact that they will have little or no experience of independent living which prevents them from doing even the most basic of things37. This has been recognised by a number of commentators who argue that the problems of long term homelessness are to an extent due to lack of skills, knowledge and social development38. Finally, another prominent need for the youth homelessness is not just the provision of accommodation but is the need for further support after the allocation of accommodation, of any kind. It has been argued that this is a particular need of youth homeless and that provision of such support must be flexible, appropriate and geared to need39.The foregoing is not meant to be an authoritative statement but a guide to what we will be analysing in the rest of this work. In order to assess the Homelessness Act 2002 we will be looking at how local authorities and the statute are confident of meeting some of these needs that we have outlined above.Local Authorities and Discretion Post-2002As we see, above, the local authorities have a massive deal of control and discretion in publishing a strategy and creating there own allocation criteria. The importance of this is that the young homel ess tend not to fall into an explicit category of those in priority need, as we shall see, and therefore the operation of local authorities under the Act give way of the utmost importance to assessing the effectiveness of the legislative structure. In determine this we are looking at three separate but inter-related areas that world power impact on the effectiveness of providing a coherent approach to youth homelessness. Thus if we look at needs such as information provided to the young there is a clear danger that if there is a disjointed approach across local authorities then the quality of life enjoyed by those young people who fall into homelessness will become a post-code draught.Lack of Monitoring Procedures / Inadequacy of Performance IndicatorsThe first specific area that this research wants to uncover is whether or not the lack of observe provisions leads to an inconsistent application which consequently fails young homeless people. Furthermore, are the indicators used by government to monitor local authority initiatives adjuvant? The joining up of local authorities under the 2002 Act was a specific aim and the government stated While the Government will join-up policy at the national level, local authorities will need to do so locally40. This was supposed to be achieved by an conjunction between supra-local bodies such as the Housing Corporation, Local Government connectedness and National Housing Federation41. They all recommended the adoption of a partnership between housing associations and local authorities to help implement the strategies required under the 2002 Act. However, with this many bodies involved it is hard to monitor the success of the Act peculiarly as the local authorities are under no duty to monitor the success. However, in an indirect way a lack of monitoring will cause severe difficulty for the Local Authority in reviewing current and future levels of homelessness in accordance with their strategy. This is because the r aw information will not be in an accessible form, it will be outflank across many different agencies or it may not be gathered at all42Shelter has campaigned for the wider introduction of multi-agency monitoring43 which derives from governments Homelessness Strategies A considerably Practice handbook44. The idea of a MAM is that a lead agency, commonly a local authority, will take charge of running the scheme and have a department dedicated to the maintenance of it. The scheme operates as follows All agencies use common forms to collect information, asking the same questions, and using the same data entry codes. A MAM scheme uses a comical identifier for each individual when recording the information onto a central database45. The advantages of this are the ability to identify demographics and look at how policy and initiatives impacts on them. In that way the local authority can look at numerous independent variables such as person of first contact, place of first contact, pop ularity of various services and many other incredibly important pieces of information. However, the handbook is a recommendation and is not mandatory by any means and it is therefore unsurprising that the Housing Quality Network Services (HQNS) recommended in 2004 that more guidance on the minimum requirement for monitoring to visualise best practice46 be introduced by the government. The HQNS service highlighted that producing an action broadcast including plans for monitoring and having doing indicators was a weak point in many strategies47 who failed to set out in any substantive detail how they were going to go some monitoring homelessness. However, in fairness there are other councils who have mentioned MAMs48 in their strategies but even there these are prospective and thin on detail49. The difficulty for this work is in assessing the effectiveness and the dedication to these limited stated aims without direct access to primary resources. Thus this work must defer to the co nclusions of the quantitative research done by the HQNS that makes explicit that whilst many strategies mention monitoring few have much detail or concrete plans for how a MAM would be set-upThe picture that arises, therefore, is that the lack of mandatory minimum monitoring requirements is not being counteracted by pro-active councils around the country therefore in that way it fails to achieve the goals of having effective reviews and strategies. As the Bath North East Somerset strategy stated A strategy is only as good as the information that supports it50. The fact that a government produced report which generally herald the whole process of producing a review and strategy as a success mentioned data collection and monitoring as a problem on several occasions highlights that this could be a significant problem in targeting the strategies in any meaningful sense at youth homelessness. This has a knock-on effect on performance indicators.The government had encouraged local autho rities to introduce performance indicators51 and in 2005 they introduced The Local Government (Best Value) Performance Indicators and Performance Standards (England) Order 200552. This followed a wide consultation on the issue. It utilise this to all local authorities and measures performance by reference to five criteriaAverage length of stay in bed and breakfast or hostel accommodation by households including dependent children or pregnant women. itemise of rough sleepers on a single night within authoritys area.Percentage increase / decrease from year to year of statistic 1. telephone number of families for which housing advice casework intervention resolved their homeless situation andProportion of repeat homeless people.53Quite apart from the fact that, on a dress level, none of these mention youth homelessness but at another level the performance indicators will be useless if the monitoring procedures are as inadequate as the HQNS review suggests. Whilst it is impossible to be specific around the impact in quantitative terms we can discuss the issue in qualitative terms. We can see that there is an almost blind-spot by the government of youth homelessness in resemblance to monitoring information and how that translates into performance indicators.Diversity or Chaos under the Homelessness Act 2002As we byword in our description of the Act the basic framework set-out is that strategy is led from central government departmentsbut local housing authorities are key to planning and service delivery, irrespective of their political complexion54. The reason for this was made clear in the government green paper which in conclusion lead to the 2002 Act Central Government can set the framework for housing policies. But the delivery of those policies must be tailored to a variety of local circumstances.55 This devolving of responsibility for implementation of strategy to local authorities is clearly designed to avoid a top-down homogenous approach to community -sensitive issues such as homelessness however the question for this work is how this has worked in relation to young people. It is integral to see whether this devolution has lead to innovative solutions which fit the needs of young people and also to see whether this leads to a post-code lottery because of regional discrepancies.Primarily, we can draw comparative conclusions from a very useable survey of Scottish Local Authorities carried out in 2004 which looked at which authorities were addressing youth homelessness specifically as a problem56. The study was carried out only one year after The Homelessness, etc. (Scotland) Act 2003 and thus many strategies were in draft format and some werent available at all but the conclusions are stark. As far as having clear aims and objectives in relation to young people the survey only found one strategy that had these specifically stated. There was a much larger emphasis on prevention rather than aiding those already homeless thus twenty -seven strategies dealt with provision of information on services for homelessness in schools. Worryingly there were no strategies that assessed the general availability of affordable housing for young people but as we mentioned one of the major(ip) needs of young homeless people was provision of ongoing support and this was place as an objective in the strategies of twenty-six of the local authorities however only six took this any further and proposed aid in relation to education, training or employment. We will recall that lack of those skills is seen as endemic disease to youth homelessness and it seemed it was poorly turn to. The conclusions of the SCSH as a whole were that youth issues are generally not well addressed in the homelessness strategies, aside from one or two exceptions57 and worryingly one of the least well addressed issues was having a specific youth homelessness policy within the general homelessness policy. It is hard to make direct generalisations to Englan d with regard to this study but it is suggestive that youth-specific issues are not as high in the list of priorities of many local authorities as perhaps other demographics such as those suffering domestic abuse or pregnant woman.In a similar study, which had a much wider remit, the ODPM had argued that in English Homelessness Strategies Young people, either single or in families, are a key priority in most parts of the country.58 However it noticed a disparity in other demographics such as single people and gypsies / travellers. However, what is worrying around this can be highlighted in a study of the strategies of Bromley and Lewisham Councils. In Bromley it is current to say that Vulnerable Young People is one of the specific leaf node groups that were included in their strategy and included plans for the development of specific support services59. Thus it created a new team within the council to specifically deal with young people and their needs as well as arrange funding for new supported accommodation facilities as a form of initial accommodation for young people60. However, the problem is that such services are de-limited and targeted solely at 16 and 17 year olds. However, our review of young peoples needs indicated that 16 25 years olds all felt similar disadvantages. This was also the case in Lewisham Council61 who talk about vulnerable young people as a group including those leaving care and 16 / 17 year olds. This, as we shall discuss below, is generally in response to the governments widening of priority need in the Homelessness Act 2002 to cover 16 and 17 year olds. This is undoubtedly a step-forward but the approach is undermined because it skews focus onto these two age groups. The other thing that is striking about both of these strategies is the lack of plans specifically to provide information to young people62, statistics about youth homelessness and nothing about education, training or employment opportunities or schemes for youn g people.Having looked at these two large councils, Scotland and the overall review carried out by the ODPM there are a number of conclusions that we can make. Firstly, disparity between the councils doesnt seem to be a large problem as far as young people are concerned. However, the approach does seem homogenous and inadequate to cater to the wider 16 25 demographic all of whom experience similar needs63 as well as making up 25% of all homeless rough sleepers in the U.K.64. There seems little of this sensitivity to local issues and the governments focus on 16 and 17 year olds has skewed the debate to a degree and in fact lead to poorer actualisation of the needs of 16 25 year old homeless people. The major problem with this is that following the abolition of housing lists and the qualifying / non-qualifying groups division that existed pre-2002, above, local authorities have discretion to target groups. Those groups seem unlikely to be a holistic treatment of 16 25 year olds.p riority NeedThe importance of being categorised as homeless and in priority need is extremely high. It is the difference between having the possibility of stave accommodation offered and the council having a duty to provide long-term accommodation, as we saw in the second section. Thus for all demographics qualification into these categories will be keenly contested and we must see to what degree young people are catered for.We dont have the space to carry out a thorough review of both subjects however a brief prcis will again highlight the impact

American Sign Language As A Language Education Essay

American indication diction As A linguistic communication Education EssayIn this chapter, a review of the literature that serves as a makeation for this delibe footstep is presented. The literature review regalees the theoretical basis of considering American mutual opposition quarrel as a linguistic communication, issues in the administration of modern/foreign dustup curriculums that par entirelyel the concerns of sign style program administrators, national speech program standards, the score of the teaching and administration of post- subaltern sign quarrel programs including in nisusation on the academic adoption of sign verbiage in higher education. reason this chapter will be a discussion on the state of the literature.American Sign lecture as a styleThe discussion of ASL and its rank as a manner of speaking did not occur before William Stokoe, of Gallaudet University in upper-case letter D.C., breached the topic in 1955. Many educators believed sign lyr ic poem was a g e rattlingplacening body of pantomime or broken incline. This belief was in addition held by the deaf individuals themselves (Miller, 2008). Stokoe believed that ASL was indeed a of course occurring and distinct wrangle ustilized by deaf people and could be studied as a lyric poem (Stokoe, 1960 ). Stokoes search spanned from 1955 to 1965 and covered signing as a linguistic system and signs as a naval division of the system. The first American Sign lecture Dictionary was published in 1965 at the conclusion of the first part of Stokoes investigate. The focus part of Stokeoes continued look for focused on the syntax of the lecture and its importance to teaching side to deaf children. Dr Stokoe asserts he was in constant contact with the Center for Applied Linguistics, the Georget give birth University School of phrase and Linguistics, and the Washington Linguistics Club, laying the put upation and belief that part of sign phraseology grammar paralleled p arts of the languages they were studying (Stokoe, 1990). Stokoe believed signs could be taken apart and analyzed into parts al mooing questioners and linguists to study how the language works, how they evolved, and how they could be taught.The work of William Stokoe was not widely sure among all professionals. Since the 1970s umteen boast argued against the language classification for ASL and curiously that of foreign language (Stokoe, 1960 Wilcox, 1990). ASL was studied and analyzed without further evidence that it was a full blown language. Questions have been raised regarding ASLs legitimacy as a foreign language. The following are a set of questions that are super C among critics of ASL. (a) Isnt ASL indigenous to the United States and therefore not foreign? (b) Isnt ASL a derived function of English which would disqualify it as a separate language? (c) Is ASL naturally occurring and evolving? (d) If ASL is not written, how can it have a socialization? (e) Is there a bod y of literature to protrude ASL and its culture? All of these questions have been asked over the decades and have been the major road blocks to ASL universe recognized as a language.William Stokoe effectively answered these questions over several(prenominal) years which have been supported by several separate scholars in linguistics and culture. In response to the questions regarding whether or not ASL is a language, Stokoe explains in detail with books and dictionaries the morphology, phonology, syntax, as well as semantics and pragmatics and how it differs from that of English or new(prenominal) verbalize languages (Stokoe, 1960). Wilcox Peyton (1999) state, ASL is a fully developed language, wiz of hundreds of naturally occurring sign languages in the world. Conover (1997) states that genius is not presum fitted to find much(prenominal) opposition to ASL as a language form linguists, however the most resistance comes from colleges and universities who do not believe AS L should be taught as a foreign language (Miller, 2008). There is a salient deal of seek, according to Wilcox Peyton (1999), which demonstrates that ASL grammar is radically different from English grammar it contains structures and cultivatees which English lacks (Wilcox, 1999 Vigoda, 1993). When canvas American Sign lecture to other evaluate foreign languages one must take in to account that Navajo and several other natural American languages are widely accepted as foreign languages, being even more(prenominal) than indigenous to America than ASL. A language desire not be foreign to be considered a foreign language (Wilcox, S. Wilcox, P., 1991).In response to the literature question, researchers have found a gigantic body of literature among deaf people (Cooper et al, 2008 Armstrong, 1988). The literature is not in a written traditional form but, like Native American languages, through and through and through story telling passed from generation to generation. With mod ern technology these very old stories can today be viewed on the internet and on DVDs. The widespread use of storytelling in deaf culture has become more and more available to the general population.ASL continues to be a topic of research at numerous universities and has evolved to be the lead topic in language acquisition, eurolinguistics, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, anthropology, cognitive studies, teaching methods, and assessment of sign language skills (Jacobowitz, 2005 Miller, 2008). Empirical research on language in the human brain has provided support for Stokoes initial findings. Studies focused on neural processing of signed language found the same areas of the brain are used to process spoken language (Hickok et al., 2001). The New York Times in 1992 argues ASL is a language because it uses the same elements of spoken language and is organized like any other spoken language (Hickok et al., 2001 Stokoe, 2005).Two linguists from the Salk Institute, Klima and Bellug i (1979) began studying sign language in the 1960s, they wondered whether ASL was an language as other linguists understand that concept. The findings of Klima and Bellugi (1979) supported the linguistic components of ASL, which they called a complexly structured language with a highly articulated grammar, a language that exhibits many of the fundamental properties linguists have posited for all languages (p. 4). Definitions of ASL continued in 1980 with Baker and Cokely indicating ASL is a visual-gestural language created by deaf people (p. 47). They defined the language as a system of relatively arbitrary symbols and grammatical signals that change across m and that members of a community share and use for several purposes to interact with each other, to communicate their ideas, emotions, intentions, and to transmit their culture from generation to generation (p. 31).Issues of constitutionAdministrators of LOTE programs often face issues that are not unique to their program. I nstructors of American Sign wrangle often rely on the philosophies, policies, theories, and strategies used in other programs that teach LOTE. Concerns faced by ASL administrators often face similar concerns of LOTE Administrators.A study conducted by the MLA in 1989 showed that language requirements varied depending on the casing of language program, and type of institution. More than half of the institutions surveyed (58.5% public, 41.5% private) viewed language study as essential to a well-rounded education (Cooper, 1997, p.29 Huber, 1989). Additionally the MLA study indicated that 87% of the institutions housed all languages in spite of appearance one divisional unit. Of those institutions the languages were housed with other non-language courses and in segments international of the language emphasis such as philosophy and Humanities. Essentially, the study finds that administrative decisions regarding language financial statement was made by departments and administrators with no experience in LOTE. Huber (1989) suggests foreign language instruction may take a secondary role to English when both are passing played in the same department. all over half (56%) that volunteered a degree in English did not offer a degree in LOTE, and those that offered a MA in English only offered a BA in most of the other languages. Huber (1989) in like manner suggests that language programs may be housed in non-language departments because of resource restraints or low student interest.A study of 1000 foreign language department chairs done by Cardenas (1988) indicated over seventy percent (73.7%) of the respondents found one of the most frustrating pieces of administration of the language departments was the lack of momentum with their own research and teaching. Much of the frustration was motivating unproductive mental faculty (60.2%), faculty evaluations (54.3%), managing the budget (51.7%), and recruiting part- eon faculty (48.3%).National linguistic process Program beatsThe American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL) states as part of their philosophy that Language and communication are at the heart of the human experience (ACTFL). The transcription goes on to say they envision a future in which solely students will develop and maintain proficiency in English and at least one other language, modern or classical (ACTFL). In essence these statements open the door for all forms of communication that meet the standards of language learning.The Standards for Foreign Language Learning Preparing for the 21st Century has been a vertebral column for guidance of foreign language instruction. These standards, according to the ACTFL, are called the 5 Cs ( progress, Culture, Connect, Compare, and Community). According to Lear and Abbott (2008) To comply with these standards, the successful student will use language to communicate for real purposes, understand multicultural and global issues, connect with other disciplines and sire new knowledge, make comparisons with their own language and culture, and participate in multilingual communities(Lear Abbott, 2008, p. 77) ( control panel 1). A language program should attempt as much of the 5 Cs as possible, however little discussion is found to what extent each must be accomplished (Lear Abbott, 2008). It is widely accepted that goal 5 is difficult to accomplish in a closed(a) classroom setting.In a position paper by the ACTFL in 2011 ASL was recognized as a LOTE when it stated, Communication for a classical language refers to an emphasis on reading ability and for American Sign Language (ASL) to signed communicative ability (ACTFL Position Statements, 2011).The publication of Standards became known as the generic- version of standards in that it addressed issues and delineated standards common to all second-language learning yet contained examples in many languages (Phillips, J. Abbott, M. 2011, p.1). From 2005 to 2010, the American Sign Language Teach ers Association (ASLTA) and the National Consortium of Interpreter Education Centers (NCIEC) collaborated onTable 1.A complete listing of ACTFLs Standards for Foreign Language Learning.CommunicationCommunicate in Language different Than EnglishStandard 1.1 Students engage in conversations, provide and obtain information,express feelings and emotions, and exchange opinions.Standard 1.2 Students understand and realise written and spoken language on avariety of topics.Standard 1.3 Students present information, concepts, and ideas to an audience oflisteners or readers on a variety of topics.Cultures succeed Knowledge and Understanding of Other CulturesStandard 2.1 Students demonstrate an understanding of the race amidst thepractices and perspectives of the culture studied.Standard 2.2 Students demonstrate an understanding of the relationship between theproducts and perspectives of the culture studied.ConnectionsConnect with Other Disciplines and Acquire InformationStandard 3.1 Stude nts repay and further their knowledge of other disciplinesthrough the foreign language.Standard 3.2 Students acquire information and recognize the distinctive viewpointsthat are only available through the foreign language and its cultures.ComparisonsDevelop Insight in the Nature of Language and CultureStandard 4.1 Students demonstrate understanding of the nature of language throughcomparisons of the language studied and their own.Standard 4.2 Students demonstrate understanding of the concept of culture throughcomparisons of the cultures studied and their own.CommunitiesParticipate in Multilingual Communities at stand and Around the WorldStandard 5.1 Students use the language both within and beyond the school setting.Standard 5.2 Students show evidence of becoming life-long learners by using the language for personal enjoyment and enrichment.the development of standards for ASL instruction as a guide to teachers and administrators of sign language programs. These standards utilized the ACTFLs Standards for Foreign Language Learning framework. The standards use the same 5 Cs of language instruction and are printed as part of the 2012 ACTFL Standards for Foreign Language Learning (Phillips, J. Abbott, M. 2011).to begin with the standards were written with nine languages being considered Chinese, Classical Languages, French, German, Italian, Japanese, Portuguese, Russian, andSpanish the Standards have spread out to include languages other than the original nine. Standards for learning Arabic are now in the printed version they have also been developed for Hindi, Swahili, Korean and American Sign Language (Phillips, J. Abbott, M. 2011).History of Academic Acceptance of Sign LanguageSign Language appeared as a language for the first time beginning in the mid-1960s when Stoke, Casterline, and Croneberg published the Dictionary of American Sign Language on Linguistic Principles. This event gave linguistic recognition to ASL for the first time in its history, alth ough very few people recognized the event as significant (Wilcox, S. Wilcox, P, 1991). Depaul University has been recognized as the first university in the United States to offer sign language classes in 1965 (Shroyer Holmes, 1980).The National Association of the Deaf (NAD) make a Communication Skills Program in 1967 in an attempt to goading language acquisition in schools, universities and programs who serve deaf people by offering sign language classes (Newel, 1995a). During the same period of time several sign systems were invented to assist in teaching deaf children English. The most commonplace systems used were Seeing Essential English (SEE I), Linguistics of Visual English (LOVE), and Signing Exact English (SEE II) (Cooper, 1997). The purpose of these sign systems was to simplify the process of teaching English to deaf children however, over time they became recognized as sign systems and were taught as varying sign language classed in colleges and universities (Cooper 1 997).Other events in the 1960s and 1970s contributed to the change magnitude availability of sign language classes in schools and higher education. Research and publications by Stoke (1966 1990), Klimba and Bellugi (1979), Wilbur (1979, 1987), and Cokely and Baker (1980) added support for the general acceptance of ASL as a language (Cooper, 1997).Legislation also played an consequential role for sign language in the schools as the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and PL94-142 of 1975 expanded the requirement to provide Sign Language Interpreters in the classroom as a service for deaf students. The caused an increased need for skilled hearing individuals to learn sign language so that interpreters may be available in the schools when required. Interpreter training programs gained federal funding in an effort to relieve the pressure for skilled interpreters (Newell, 1995b).Implications for future day ResearchAdditional and ongoing research regarding individual views regarding sign lang uage is unavoidable including tracking the growth of programs nationally would be beneficial. Future research in development of ASL programs regionally is essential particularly as it partners with LOTE programs. authorized data on institutions that recognize ASL as a LOTE and houses it with other languages is important. token interest regarding institutions that discontinue their programs and the reasons behind it would be treasured.This study did not address certifications of teachers acceptedly working as ASL instructors however data regarding the fact is needed to assess future needs in training instructors in the language. The correlativity of signing and non-signing administrators was not examined. Neither was the ethnicity or gender discussed although this would be raise to research for further influence among minorities and genders.Evaluation of the State of the LiteratureRegarding current research the surveys administered should be shorter in length to increase the p articipation rate of responders. Additional information regarding majors, minors, and other university requirements would be helpful including where the sign language program is housed. For example, knowing if the program is a stand-alone program, part of other language department, or listed for credit as an elective would assist institutions in making decisions on language administration.The research to this point in history has focused mainly on which schools accept ASL for credit and the overarching reasons why some may not accept it. Not a lot of research has been done to discuss the programs reasons for acceptance or the process of approval if they were able to secure approval.This research attempts to answer the question many researchers failed to answer, which is a more detailed understanding of personal views of ASL by administrators of languages other than English. Past research has been able to list categories of rejection or acceptance and attempted to list which institu tions have been able to recognize sign language for credit on par with other languages at the institutions. The question left unanswered are at what level does ASL receive the most support or resistance in the process of gaining recognition as a language at the institutions. This is important for future organizations who seek approval at various colleges and universities. Additionally, the overall acceptance of sign language in various countries would also be valued to find the international point of view of sign language as it is compared to the United States.

The Effect Of Advanced Educational Tools English Language Essay

The Effect Of Advanced Educational Tools slope Language EssayThe wrap up is about(predicate) advanced education tools with encyclopaedism accomplishments of students. A swank cry which is an advanced education tool is lost for student schooling. The advanced education tools be the important ca habituated of unhealthful learning skills such(prenominal) as bad writing skill, evidenceing skill and turning out skill and the report leave al nonpareil point to the veridical ca workd.The aim of the report is finding the real ca utilise for understanding the real problem of students learning. The problem is a chronic education problem that students give nonicet read, write and cristal.There atomic number 18 two details of advanced education tools that are tools and effects. The tools such as a smart address, spell check tools, dictionary tools, thesaur utilises tools and formulate bear upon tools are a cause of worse learning. The effects such as short attention span , low score, bad writing skill and straight writing skill cause by the advanced educational tools and internet.Although students eat the bene see of advanced education tools on their calculating machines and smart ph unmatcheds, their learning skills such as reading skill, writing skill and spelling skill are worse. The advanced education tools such as a smart phone is helpless for better scores. However, bad learning skills cause by improper used. Nowadays young peoples attention span has become increasingly shorter because they pass away or so of quantify on the internet and their electronic gadgets. On the otherwise hand, however, their scores and learning skills wont be worse if they use the tools for real education.The effect of advanced educational toolsshort attention spanStudents use closely of times with playing games on the internet, chatting on Face news and Twitter. Electronic gadget such as a smart phone is the best advanced educational tools. At the same tim e, the tool makes students bring forth become short attention span to learn in a classroom because they use it in improper way.low scoreAlthough most students benefit from advanced education tools on their calculators or smart phones, their scores arent better and it seems to be worse. The low score caused maybe comes from the students who dont care about their scores and learning, and sometimes it maybe comes from the teachers who dont concentrate on their students as advantageously as they should. However students use the tools for real education, it wont have the problem.bad writing skillThe most youngsters like to use umpteen fool words. When they talk or legislate to other people, they will use a short word that it looks like their speaking identity. Moreover, they use the most times with chatting on the internet that it is a cause of the slang words used. The most writing for communication on the internet isnt proper syntax use that it becomes familiar and leads to bad writing skill.Solid writing skillsNowadays mash skill of a student is non more increasing or decrease than then because most students already use such engineering as spell-check, internet, smart phone etc on a daily basis. Students net profit attention to them more than interest in their lesson. When they are desolate in a class, they are more playing games and playing electronic gadgets than aim and practice. This reason provide explain why most students have unbendable wring skill.Wring skill of Asian is better than U.S.Its said that in that respect is a learning strategy in Asia different from U.S. Asian slope learning is often to study reading, writing and speaking which differ from Ameri send word that allowed students to use spell-check, computing device word processing tools and others. The Asian who more read and write so, they better wring skill than Ameri prat.Cant readAt present educational tools have been developed greatly. However, there are two advantages and disadvantages too. Cant read is one of the disadvantages that decreased reading skills of students. There are many causes for example students prefer to use Education tools instead of savor to learn by themselves and low quality educational technique of teachers. How to tooth root? Students should read with a purpose, so focus on that purpose and the material. This childly technique helps students focus and increase their concentration and high score.Internet Meaning.Is the largest computer network in the world, which is caused by a variety of computer systems, networks, sub-networks together into a larger network. That two or more computers. Can communicate with each other via telephone lines, Cable or Satellite, etc. will exchange contact information. Or mechanical joint such as Printer or CD-Rom together, we call this the behavior of a computer network (Network), which has a number of computers on the network. And is connected to the world. Into a larger network. We cal l this the Internet itself.Advantage of the Internet.1. Ability to communicate with others around the world.2. Could not find any information as to sit in the subroutine library with a huge wealth of information from all over the world.3. Compared to the Wests remark in a chat room and message boards is open tolerant and interesting vision.4. Could track the movement of information quickly.5. Opening trade on their own. Without the need to set up a shop or service. It can be made by myself alone.6. Electronic mail (E-mail) sent a letter to request and receive mail within and outside the country. The message is the message. Send a greeting card to a different country.7. read magazine and newspaper articles as well as our stories for free then buy the book to read.8. Posting messages that others have posted to a tracker. Jobs. contract assistance.9. A lot of available free from the Internet, such as images, music, TV programs, computer games.Disadvantage of the Internet.1. The I nternet is a large network with many people used the service. As a forum for open and free to anyone who writes. Or posted without moderation are good. The information obtained can not be sure that is true or not.2. An infringement of copyright for a song to download. Collected or sold. It is a problem. Editing to become a famous pornographic images or corrupted.3. Causing the crime. Because of the internet, such as the come-on to advance women in a bad way. The crime of rape. The porn site.4. Creates problems for autistic youth at the site. Cause disease via the Internet. Cause harm to their friendly undertakings.The intend of dictionaryA dictionary (also called a wordbook, lexicon, or vocabulary) is a collection of words in one or more particular proposition languages, often listed alphabetically (or by radical and stroke for ideographic languages), with impost information, definitions, etymologies, phonetics, pronunciations, and other information or a book of words in one lan guage with their equivalents in another, also known as a lexicon. According to Nielsen (2008) a dictionary may be regarded as a lexicographical product that is characterized by three significant features (1) it has been prepared for one or more functions (2) it contains data that have been selected for the purpose of fulfilling those functions and (3) its lexicographic structures relate and establish relationships between the data so that they can meet the involve of users and fulfill the functions of the dictionary.Advantages of dictionaryThere are many definitions.EtymologiesPhoneticsPronunciationsDisadvantages of dictionaryIt is big-ticket(prenominal) for someone.Some words wrong definitions.There is a little vocabulary.The meaning of thesaurusesA thesaurus is a reference work that lists words grouped together according to similarity of meaning (containing synonyms and sometimes antonyms), in separate to a dictionary, which contains definitions and pronunciations. The larges t thesaurus in the world is the Historical Thesaurus of the Oxford side Dictionary, which contains more than 920,000 entries.Advantages of thesaurusesContaining synonymsContaining antonymsThe meaning of word processingWord processing is the mankind of chronicles using a word processor. It can also refer to advanced shorthand techniques, sometimes used in specialized contexts with a oddly modified slipwriter.Advantages of word processing1. Most people can type faster than they can write2. word-processed documents are always legible3. Documents can good be sending electronically4. Can use accr canceled features like hyperlinks5. Spell /grammar check easy to erase and fix mistakes and edit text6. It is easier to make changes to your document. You can move, change, delete, save, and format all your ideas in one handy file.7. It frees you to express ideas more clearly and to let your thoughts flow because anything can be changed or deleted later.8. It allows you to organize all you r work or ideas together in a file. Instead of deleting paragraphs that do not seem to fit an assignment, you can move them to the end of the file where they can be used later or in another project.9. It is easy to share and keep word processing files electronicallyDisadvantages of word processingrequires a computer (and electrical power) to writedata can be lost by a computer malfunctionrequires a computer or printing machine to view documentcertain languages (esp. Asian languages) require hundreds of symbols not easily accessed on a keyboardsymbols and equations are easier to write than create on a computerThe meaning spell checkSpell check (or spell check) is an application program that flags words in a document that may not be spelled correctly. Spell checkers may be stand-alone capable of operating on a block of text, or as part of a larger application, such as a word processor, email client, electronic dictionary, or search engine.Advantages of spell checks1. Allows the read y checking of ones spelling, crowing suggestions as to which word you may have meant to type.2. Better word processors spell checkers also check for grammar and sentence structure.3. It may tell you the share of a given phrase / sentence / paragraph i.e. passive (tentative) vocalization you have possibly said if you hit him he may authorise and hurt himself. instead of something like knock him to the ground and see him bleed. This can allow a document to the tightened up were needed to give a very concise paper.Disadvantages of spell checks1. As most word processors plainly use an abridged dictionary many of the words one may use will not be in the dictionary already installed2. Although by parsing the document the grammar can be checked, there is nothing to clear the semantics, i.e. whether it makes sense or not.3. In many cases the voice of a document is of no consequence and feature just proves to be an annoyance proofAlthough students have the benefit of advanced education tools on their computers and smart phones, their learning skills such as reading skill, writing skill and spelling skill are worse. The advanced education tools such as a smart phone is helpless for better scores. However, bad learning skills cause by improper used. Nowadays young peoples attention span has become increasingly shorter because they spend most times on the internet and their electronic gadgets. On the other hand, however, their scores and learning skills wont be worse if they use the tools for real education.Tak, Bow, Olef, Bim

Land Resources Land As A Resource Environmental Sciences Essay

Land mental imagerys Land As A Resource Environmental Sciences EssayLand or smirch is one of the inbred bums for military personnel life and social development. modifys argon defined and characterized on the primer of their morphological profiles beca delectation the assemblage of obvious physical features represented by these units be often related to the little obvious features of their chemical composition, chemical properties, and fertility. manpower stomach tilled the blot and irrigated and drained it for at least six-spot millennia. This is basic to civilization. Systematic scientific study of agriculture began in the branch half of the nineteenth century, along with physical stu pass ons of the primer. In its natural state, the commonwealth is normally a three-component porous medium consisting of solid reproach particles, irrigate supply, and air. overmuch of the piss involved in the hydrologic cycle is located in body politic in the midst of the time of its arrival as rain at the lubricating oil surface and that of its return to the atmosphere. The processes of water movement in mark stage a profound part in the scientific study of the everyday sector of the hydrologic cycle and in the problems of juiceless- cut and irrigated agriculture, of countersink ecology, and of obscenity biology. These influence the have a bun in the oven of materials in solution such(prenominal) as natural coarsenesss, fertilizers, and urban and industrial wastes done the begrime. Properties such as infiltration, drainage, and retention of water in the alter layers extraction of water by plant roots and the evaporation of water from the dirty ar besides important.The solid phase of the farming has mineral and thoroughgoing matter, which is usually bluely colloidal, seldom exceeds 5-10% by weight of dishonor. In an coarse context, the main interest in dominion structure is in terms of soil tilth, which is related to the ability of aggr egates to maintain their integrity when the soil is irrigated, tilled, or otherwise worked so that water retention and drainage and aeration ar kept at favorable levels.As soil is a entangled mixture of m whatever(prenominal) components there is usually little value in find out the centre of a chemical element present without some(prenominal) property of the fraction of the soil in which it travel bys and its form of combination. Indeed, fractions that comprise solo a micro pro specify of the total soil mass atomic number 18 often very important in determining its behavior. The following is a convenient classification of soil fractionsThe Organic Fraction,The Mineral Fraction,Soluble in water Simple in entire ions,Soluble in dilute acids Carbonates,in disintegrable in dilute acids. main(a) minerals mainly occur in backbone and congest fractions secondary minerals usually occur in the clay fraction (Organic FractionOrganic materials be added to soils as dead plant and animal detains. They ar decomposed by the microflora and microfauna to form humus, an amorphous material unadorned from undecomposed litter. Well-humified organic matter contains active 58 % degree centigrade, so the amount of the soil organic fraction is usually specified by determining the organic carbon nitty-gritty and multiplying it by 1.73. Organic contents hightail it from zero in rough mineral subsoils, through 1 to 10 % in arable topsoils, to uprightly 100% (of the modify weight) in some peat and muck soils. The amounts in surface soils depend on the balance between accumulation and decomposition, and these processes in turn argon fascinated by temperature and wet content. apart(predicate) from carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, the organic fraction contains atomic number 7, sulfur, and friction match. The proportions of these elements argon often expressed as ratios comp ard to nitrogen taken as 10, and typical values argon CN = 80-15010, SN = 1.2-1.510, and PN = 0.2-3.010. Metals such as aluminum, iron, manganese, and grunter ar also found in small amounts in humic complicatedes.The organic compounds in humus are very distinct. The main portion shape ups to consist of polymers, some of which are formed by random ejector seat of phenols, amino acids, and other related microbial abjection products. A capacious number of compounds have been isolated from humus extracts, and many of these must(prenominal) be artifacts. Of particular interest, apart from the polyphenols, are amino acids (implying that humus contains protein), sugars (indicating lucre fractions), and amino sugars. The sulfur seems to be part of the main humus fraction, probably as sulfur-containing amino acids and organic sulphates. In some soils, much of the organic phosphorus is present as inositol polyphosphates, which appear not to be an intrinsic part of the humus.Water-soluble ComponentsThe soluble-salt content of most soils is low so that the soil solution t ypically contains between 5 and 25 mmol/L of calcium and magnesium salts, mainly as nitrate. In saline soils, however, the salt content is of the order of 100 mmol/L, and although still less than 1% of the soil mass, the soluble salts dominate the behavior of the soil and include also sodium (Na+), chloride (Cl-), hydrogen change (HCO3-), and sulphate (SO4) ions.The salt content is normally determined in a saturation extract prepared by wetting the soil until it is ripe thoroughgoing(a) with water and filtering off the extract infra precipitate pressure. The filter out whitethorn be analyzed chemically, but a rapid indication of the degree of salinity is given by measuring its electrical conductivity. conduction values above 4 milliSiemens (mS) paint a picture that crop fruit whitethorn be trim reduced by salt damage, while above 20 mS only salt-tolerant species enkindle survive. The approximate conductivity at 25C of a 100 mmol/L solution referred to above is 8-10 mS. The chemical reaction of soil is one of its most important diagnostic parameters. It is given by a pH measurement on the saturation extract or on a suspension of soil in water or in a dilute electrolyte solution. Strongly acid soils whitethorn have pH values down to 3.5, and strongly alkaline soils as high as 9.5, but more typical pH values of soils vomit up from 5 to 8.CarbonatesIn soils formed from limestone rocks or other carbonate-containing sediments, carbonates occur mainly as calcite (CaCO3) but sometimes also as dolomite (Ca, Mg)CO3. They are important in the buffer system that controls the pH and cation balance of soil, and also for their reactions with anions, curiously phosphate. In their reactions with anions, the particle size and surface celestial sphere of the soil carbonates are more important than the amount.Amounts of soil carbonate are estimated from the carbon dioxide evolved when the soil is treated with dilute acid, the results being expressed as a percent age by weight of the soil. In a leaching environment, soil carbonate is gradually removed by solution in change water CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 = Ca(HCO3)2 so that topsoils contain less carbonate than subsoils or the parent material. The leached carbonate may be concentrated by chemical precipitation at profoundness in the soil profile.Primary MineralsSoil analysis includes the separation and determination of backbone, silt, and clay fractions by sieving and sedimentation. The mineral matter of soils is directly inherited from the parent material, although its composition is usually different depending on the age of the soil and the resistance of minerals to weathering. The minerals in the sand and silt fractions are mainly quartz and feldspars, plus a host of adjuvant minerals. Only the most resistant primary minerals remain in travel stages of soil development, i.e., quartz (SiO2) as the study component, with smaller amounts of heavy admixture oxides such as hematite (Fe2O3), magn etite (Fe3O4), and rutile (TiO2).Secondary MineralsThe clay-sized (Land abasementLand degradation making the prop unsui instrument panel for habitat eddy and agriculture has become a major(ip) problem in juvenile times. This has curseened the world nourishment exertion as soil tonicity degradation results in severe reduction in crop yield. It is estimated that 15 percent of the worlds total trim down area has not maintained its flavor callable to a number of problems that include eroding, nutrient decline, salinization and physical compaction. The countries which are mainly dependent on agriculture as a internal resource suffer more from the force outs of land degradation.Some of the major soil degradation processes and the causes for them are given below. outrage of topsoil by eroding/surface wash. This results in a fall in depth of the topsoil layer ascribable to more or less analogous removal of soil material by run-off water. The authorization causes are c ontrasted land management especially in agriculture (insufficient soil adopt, unobstructed prevail of run-off water, deteriorating soil structure) leading to excessive surface run-off and sediment transport.Terrain crookedness is an irregular displacement of soil material (by li nigh(a) erosion or mass movement) causing clearly visible scars in the terrain. The manageable causes are in impound land management in agriculture forestry or crook activities, allowing excessive amounts of run-off water to concentrate and flow unobstructed.Fertility decline and reduced organic matter content resulting in a net decrease of available nutrients and organic matter in the soil. This is likely to be due to imbalance between output (through harvesting, burning, leaching, etc.) and input (through manure/fertilizers, returned crop residues, flooding) of nutrients and organic matter.Soil pollution indicates the comportment of an alien substance in the soil without signifi female genital organ t negative effects and soil pollution signifies soil degradation as a consequence of location, concentration and adverse biological or toxic effects of a substance. The source of pollution may be waste dumps, spills, factory wasted, etc. The source mint also be diffuse or airborne (atmospheric deposition of acidifying compounds and/or heavy metals.Eutrophication with the aim of an excess of certain soil nutrients, impairing plant growth. The practical causes are sick application of organic and chemical fertilizer resulting in excess nitrogen, phosphorus liming.Compaction resulting in deterioration of soil structure by trample by cattle or the weight and/or frequent use of machinery. The feasible causes are repeated use of heavy machinery, having a accumulative effect. Heavy grazing and overstocking may lead to compaction as well. Factors that influence compaction are ground pressure (by axle/wheel loads of the machinery used) frequence of the passage of heavy machinery soil t exture soil moisture climate. sealing and crusting which is clogging of pores with fine soil material and development of a lithesome impervious layer at the soil surface obstructing the infiltration of rainwater. The possible causes are poor soil persist in, allowing a maximum splash effect of raindrops destruction of soil structure and low organic matter.Waterlogging that results from effects of human induced hydromorphism (i.e. excluding paddy fields). The possible causes are rising water table (e.g. due to construction of reservoirs/irrigation) and/or growthd flooding caused by higher(prenominal) peak-flows.Lowering of the soil surface resulting from subsidence of organic soils, settling of soil. The possible causes are oxidation of peat and settling of soils in general due to laborious of the water table solution of gypsum in the sub-soil (human-induced) or toilsome of soil surface due to extraction of gas or waterLoss of productive function which results from soil (land) being taken out of yield for non-bio-productive activities, but not the eventual secondary degrading effects of these activities. The possible causes are urbanization and industrial activities infrastructure mining quarrying, etc.Aridification, which is the decrease of average soil moisture content. The possible causes are lowering of groundwater tables for rustic purposes or drinking water extraction decreased soil cover and reduced organic matter content.Salinisation / alkalinization which is a net increment of the salt content of the (top)soil leading to a productivity decline. The possible causes are a distinction give the axe be made between salinity problems due to intrusion of seawater (which may occur under all climate conditions) and inland salinisation, caused by improper irrigation methods and/or evaporation of saline groundwater.Dystrification, which is the lowering of soil pH through the process of mobilizing or increasing acid-forming compounds in the soil.Worldwid e, almost 2,000million hectares of land show at least minor signs of degradation, corresponding to approximately 1% of the ice-free surface. Around cccmillion hectares of land surface are already seriously tumultuous. Soil degradation situation in India is shown in Fig. 2.10.Population growth and soilPopulation growth exerts enormous pressure on soils, and the soil degradation is due to excess migration and urbanization processes. The higher the rate of global tribe growth, the higher is the demand on the soil functions. There is already a growing disparity between growth-related demand and the availability of land. Many states are no longer capable of feeding their own populations with domestic agricultural products because they do not have enough land. Given the speed of population growth and the level of soil degradation already apparent, an increasing scarcity of soils available for meeting competing demands is expected.Two case studies of soil degradation1. The Sahel partTh e problems of soil degradation and desertification in the Sahel canful be attributed to changes in genius as well as to socioeconomic causes.The nomadic groups in the Sahel are increasingly restricted in the mobility and flexibility that once provided them with a potent basis for ecological adaptation. Growing competition from other forms of land use, semipolitical measures and unclear or disadvantageous land-use rights led to their sedentarisation they were pushed into more marginalized locations much less suitable for grazing livestock. The sensitive soils and ecosystems in the region are degraded as a result, mainly due to overgrazing.Subsistence farmers are similarly affected by displacement to marginal land that is unsuitable for farming. Greater mechanization without parallel soil entertainion measures (erosion protection, and suitable irrigation) has negative effects on the soils.Finally, cash crops (cotton, groundnuts) on fertile soils is not prosecute in a sustainab le fashion. These monocultures are farmed with the help of machines and pesticides, both of which can cause slap-up problems.The Sahel also undergone tremendous social changes caused by internal and external conditions. Of vastness is the general neglect of pastoral concerns and the orientation to agrarian export production through large- shield capital-intensive projects in the agricultural sector. External factors can be identified both in the global economic conditions (agricultural subsidies and/or export policies of the industrial nations, international debt) and in the practice of international development organizations, which in the past were not geared to the principle of sustainability, and which through their orientation to production technology gave too little consideration to the existing development potential. If the complex problems faced by the Sahel are to be solved, greater attention must be given to the socioeconomic causes and to organizational and financial de centralization.2. The Leipzig-Halle-Bitterfeld regionThe soils in the Leipzig-Halle-Bitterfeld region are contaminated, in some cases alarmingly, by depositions of airborne pollutants through deliberate depositing of inorganic and organic substances. A prime cause of this contamination was the concentration of chemical industries, mining and energy production, all of which used over-the-hill production methods. Since the turn of the century, there have been five brown coal mining fields, and large-scale chemical plants developed in Bitterfeld (paints and dyes), Leuna (methanol, nitrogen) and Buna (synthetic rubber). For economically and environmentally expire development of the region, soil remediation and the removal of contaminated soil are a matter of urgency, which dominates considerable support from the state or from outside the region.Fig. 2.10. Soil degradation in IndialandslipIn a landslide, masses of rock, earth, or debris move down a slope. Landslides may be small or large, slow or rapid. They are excited bystorms,earthquakes,volcanic eruptions,fires,alternate freezing or thawing, and engageening of slopes by erosion or human modification.Debris and mudflows are rivers of rock, earth, and other debris saturated with water. They develop when water rapidly accumulates in the ground, during heavy rainfall or rapid snowmelt, changing the earth into a flowing river of mud or slurry. They can flow rapidly, striking with little or no ideal at avalanche speeds. They can travel several miles from their source, growing in size as they pick up trees, boulders, and other materials.Landslide problems can be caused by land mismanagement, particularly in mountain, canyon, and coastal regions. In areas burned by forest and brush fires, a lower doorstep of precipitation may initiate landslides. Land-use zoning, professional inspections, and proper design can minimize many landslide, mudflow, and debris flow problems.Protection from a landslide or debris fl ow(a) Guidelines for the period following a landslideStay away from the slide area. There may be peril of additional slides.Listen to local radio or television move for the latest emergency information.Watch for flooding, which may occur after a landslide or debris flow. Floods sometimes follow landslides and debris flows because they may both be started by the same event.Check for injured and trap persons near the slide, without entering the direct slide area. Ask for rescuers and give them congeal locations.Help a neighbor who may require special attention infants, elderly people, and people with disabilities. Elderly people and people with disabilities may require additional avail. People who care for them or who have large families may need additional assistance in emergency situations.Inform appropriate authorities about damaged road shipway, railways, electricity lines and other utilities. Reporting potential professs will get the utilities turned off as speedily as pos sible, preventing further damage.Check building foundation, chimney, and surrounding land for damage. Damage to foundations, chimneys, or surrounding land may help assess the safety of the area. set damaged ground as soon as possible since erosion caused by loss of ground cover can lead to sporty flooding and additional landslides in the near future.Seek advice from a geotechnical able for evaluating landslide hazards or designing corrective techniques to reduce landslide take a chance. A professional will be able to advise you of the best ways to prevent or reduce landslide risk, without creating further hazard.(b) During a Landslide or Debris FlowWhat one should do if a landslide or debris flow occursStay alert and awake. Many debris-flow fatalities occur when people are sleeping. Listen to radio or television for warnings of deep rainfall. Be aware that intense, short bursts of rain may be particularly dangerous, especially after longer periods of heavy rainfall and damp weat her.If you are in areas susceptible to landslides and debris flows, consider leaving if it is safe to do so. Remember that driving during an intense storm can be hazardous. If you remain at fellowship, move to a second story if possible. Staying out of the path of a landslide or debris flow saves lives.Listen for any unusual sounds that might indicate moving debris, such as trees fracture or boulders knocking together. A trickle of flowing or travel mud or debris may precede larger landslides. move debris can flow quickly and sometimes without warning.If one is near a stream or channel, he should be alert for any sudden increase or decrease in water flow and for a change from clear to muddy water. Such changes may indicate landslide activity upstream, so be prepared to move quickly. Dont break Save yourself, not your belongings.Be especially alert when driving. Embankments along roadsides are particularly susceptible to landslides. Watch the road for collapsed pavement, mud, f allen rocks, and other indications of possible debris flows.(c) What to do in case of Imminent Landslide riskinessContact your local fire, police, or public works department. Local officials are the best persons able to assess potential danger.Inform affected neighbors. Your neighbors may not be aware of potential hazards. Advising them of a potential threat may help save lives. Help neighbors who may need assistance to evacuate.Evacuate. Getting out of the path of a landslide or debris flow is your best protection.Curl into a tight ball and protect your head if escape is not possible.(d) Before a Landslide or Debris FlowProtect yourself from the effects of a landslide or debris flowDo not build near steep slopes, close to mountain edges, near drainage ways, or natural erosion valleys.Get a ground assessment of your property.Contact local officials, geological surveys or departments of natural resources, and university departments of geology. Landslides occur where they have befor e, and in identifiable hazard locations. Ask for information on landslides in your area, specific information on areas vulnerable to landslides, and request a professional referral for a very expound site analysis of your property, and corrective measures you can take, if necessary.If you are at risk from a landslide talk to your insurance agent. Debris flow may be covered by flood insurance policies.Minimize home hazardsHave flexible pipe fittings installed to avoid gas or water leaks, as flexible fittings are more resistant to breakage (only the bobble Company or professionals should install gas fittings).Plant ground cover on slopes and build retaining walls.In mudflow areas, build channels or parenthesis walls to direct the flow around buildings.Remember If you build walls to divert debris flow and the flow lands on a neighbors property, you may be liable(predicate) for damages.Recognize Landslide Warning SignsChanges occur in your landscape such as examples of storm-water drainage on slopes (especially the places where runoff water converges) land movement, small slides, flows, or progressively leaning trees.Doors or countermandows stick or carry for the first time.New cracks appear in plaster, tile, brick, or foundations.Outside walls, walks, or stairs begin pulling away from the building.Slowly developing, widening cracks appear on the ground or on paved areas such as streets or driveways.Underground utility lines break.Bulging ground appears at the base of a slope.Water breaks through the ground surface in unused locations.Fences, retaining walls, utility poles, or trees tilt or move.Faint rumbling sound that increases in volume is noticeable as the landslide nears.The ground slopes down(prenominal) in one direction and may begin shifting in that direction under your feet.Unusual sounds, such as trees cracking or boulders knocking together, might indicate moving debris.Collapsed pavement, mud, fallen rocks, and other indications of possible de bris flow can be seen when driving (embankments along roadsides are particularly susceptible to landslides). depart fromificationThe most critical and increasing threat to sustainable land use is desertification. It is estimated that desertification affects one-quarter of the total land area of the world, or about 70 percent of all dry lands, and threatens the livelihoods of over 1 gazillion people in more than 100 countries. Desertification is closely linked with country-bred poverty and hunger. It exacerbates conditions leading to famine, migration, internal displacement, political instability and conflict.Desertification is the degradation of land in arid, semi arid and dry sub-humid areas resulting from various climatic variations, but primarily from human activities. Current desertification is taking place much speedy worldwide and usually arises from the demands of increasing population that settle on the land in order to grow crops and graze animals.A major shock absorber of desertification is loss of biodiversity and productive capacity, for example, by transition from grassland to perennial shrubs. The change in vegetation induces desertification. In the Madagascar, 10% of the entire country has been lost to desertification due to zoom agriculture by indigenous people. In Africa, with current kinks of soil degradation, the continent will be able to feed just 25% of its population by 2025 according to one estimate.Deserts may be separated from the surroundings by less arid areas, mountains and other landforms. In other areas, there is a gradual transition from a dry to a more humid environment, making it more difficult to determine the desert border. These transition zones have very fragile, delicately balanced ecosystems. Desert fringes are a mosaic of microclimates. Small hollows support vegetation that picks up heat from the hot winds and protects the land from the prevailing winds. After rainfall the vegetated areas are distinctly cooler than the surroundings. In these marginal areas human activity may stress the ecosystem beyond its tolerance limit, resulting in degradation of the land. By pound the soil with their hooves, livestock compact the substrate, increase the proportion of fine material, and reduce the percolation rate of the soil, thus encouraging erosion by wind and water. Grazing and collection of firewood reduce or eliminate plants that help to connect the soil.In large desert areas, sand dunes can encroach on human habitats. Sand dunes move through wind. In a major dust storm, dunes may move tens of meters. And like snow, sand avalanches, falling down the steep slopes of the dunes that face away from the winds, move the dunes forward.drouths by themselves cannot cause desertification. Drought is just a contributing factor. The causes are social and economic, having to do with doorway to resources, power and economics. Droughts are common in arid and semiarid lands, and well-managed lands can recover fro m drought when the rains return. Continued land abuse during droughts, however, increases land degradation. increase population and livestock pressure on marginal lands has accelerated desertification. In some areas, nomads moving to less arid areas disrupt the local ecosystem and increase the rate of erosion of the land. Nomads are trying to escape the desert, but because of their land-use practices, they develop the desert with them.Some arid and semi-arid lands can support crops, but additional pressure from greater population or decreases in rainfall can lead to the disappearance of the few plants present. The soil becomes exposed to wind, causing soil particles to be deposited elsewhere. The top layer becomes eroded. With the removal of shade, rates of evaporation increase and salts become drawn up to the surface. This is salinisation, which inhibits plant growth. The loss of plants causes less moisture to be retained in the area, which may change the climate pattern leading t o lower rainfall.The degradation of formerly productive land is a complex process. It involves multiple causes, and it proceeds at varying rates in different climates. Desertification may intensify a general climatic trend toward greater aridity, or it may initiate a change in local climate. Desertification does not occur in linear, easily mappable patterns. Deserts occur erratically, forming patches on their borders. Areas far from natural deserts can degrade quickly to barren soil, rock, or sand through poor land management. The presence of a nearby desert has no direct relationship to desertification. Unfortunately, an area undergoing desertification is brought to public attention only after the process is well under way. Often little data are available to indicate the introductory state of the ecosystem or the rate of degradation.Combating desertification is complex and difficult. Over-exploitation of the land and climate variations can have identical impacts, which makes it v ery difficult to choose the right easing strategy. Measures like reforestation cannot achieve their goals if global warming continues. Forests may die when it gets drier, and more frequent extreme events could become a threat for agriculture, water supply, and infrastructure.Current desertificationOvergrazing and to a lesser extent drought in the mid-thirties transformed parts of the Great Plains in the United States into the Dust Bowl. During that time, a considerable fraction of the population abandoned their homes to escape the unproductive lands. meliorate agricultural and water management have prevented a disaster of the introductory magnitude from recurring, but desertification presently affects millions of people with primary occurrence in the less developed countries.Desertification is widespread in many areas of the Peoples Republic of China. The populations of rural areas have change magnitude along with an increase in the livestock the land available for grazing has decreased. Importing of European cattle, which have higher food intakes, has made things worse.Human overpopulation is leading to destruction of tropical wet and dry forests, due to widening practices of zoom cultivation. Deforestation has led to large scale erosion, loss of soil nutrients and sometimes total desertification.Overgrazing has made the Rio Puerco Basin of central New Mexico one of the most eroded river basins of the western United States and has increased the high sediment content of the river. Overgrazing is also an issue with some regions of southwesterly Africa such as the Waterberg Massif, although restoration of native habitat and game has been pursued vigorously since 1980.The Desert of Maine is a 40-acre dune of glacial silt near Freeport, Maine. Overgrazing and soil erosion exposed the cap of the dune, revealing the desert as a small patch that continued to grow, overtaking the land. Ghana and Nigeria presently experience desertification in the latter, desert ification overtakes about 1,355 square miles of land per year. The Central Asian countries, Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan, are also affected. More than 80% of Afghanistans land is subject to soil erosion and desertification. In Kazakhstan, nearly half of the cropland has been abandoned since 1980. In Iran, sand storms were said to have bur